PY 201 Test 4 Ch. 12 – 14 – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
Sex and Gender
answer
Janet Hyde argues for gender similarities Males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables They are more alike than different Although actual psychological gender differences are small, they make a major difference in a society Females display greater verbal abilities Difference is small Males outperform females on many tests of spatial ability Training can reduce or eliminate gender difference Females and males perform similarly on most but not all standardized math tests Females obtain slightly higher math grades
question
Sex and Gender cont
answer
Girls display greater memory ability than boys Females excel at recalling verbal information Males engage in more physical and verbal aggression than females Boys are more physically active Boys are more developmentally vulnerable Girls are more tactful, cooperative, and compliant with adults Both males and females report that females are more nurturing and empathic Girls are more empathic has received the most empirical research support Females are more prone to develop anxiety disorders, depression, and phobias Males are more likely to display antisocial behaviors and drug and alcohol abuse Males use computers more and express greater confidence in their computer abilities
question
Gender Stereotypes
answer
Differences between males and females at birth are small and inconsistent Male newborns tend to be somewhat more irritable Female newborns are more alert than males Parents tend to use masculine terms for newborn boys Comment on the strength of kicks, cries Girl infants likely to be labeled sugar or sweetie Described as soft, cuddly, and adorable Study on gender stereotyping Students watched video of infant introduced as Dana or David Interpreted strong reaction to toy as anger when introduced as David Interpreted strong reaction to toy as fear when introduced as Diana Research on gender portrayals of characters in picture and elementary school books found that female characters are often still portrayed as passive and helpless.
question
By age 2½ to age 3
answer
Most children give verbal proof of and clearly demonstrate basic gender identity Awareness that they are either a boy or a girl Boys and girls begin to behave differently Boys usually prefer trucks and cars Girls would rather play with dolls and soft toys Young children rapidly acquire gender stereotypes
question
Process of gender typing
answer
Children become aware that they are biological males or females Acquire motives, values, and patterns of behavior that culture considers appropriate for members of their biological sex
question
Two to three years of age
answer
Children seem to understand society's gender stereotypes and Act in gendered ways
question
By age five
answer
Boys hold more gender-stereotypical toy preferences than girls
question
Rigidity about gender stereotypes
answer
High during the preschool years (around ages 4-7) Decreases over the elementary school years Younger children are acquiring understanding that their biological sex will remain constant And they become Intolerant of anyone who violates traditional gender-role standards
question
Explaining Gender-Role Development Social Learning Perspective
answer
Boy's Awards: Very best thinker, most eager learner, most imaginative, most enthusiastic, most scientific, Mr. Personality, hardest worker, best sense of humor Girl's Awards All-around sweetheart, sweetest personality, cutest personality, best sharer, best artist, biggest heart, best manners, best helper, most creative Research by Morrongiello and Hogg (2004) found that when asked to imagine their children misbehaving in some dangerous way (e.g. bicycling fast down a hill), moms reported that they felt anger toward their sons and disappointment toward their daughters.
question
Orientation
answer
object of one's sexual interest
question
Identity
answer
the gender a person believes s/he is psychologically
question
No relationship between Orientation and Identity
answer
A man with a strong masculine gender identity may be attracted to men
question
Sexual Orientation
answer
Preference for emotional and sexual relationships w/ same sex, other sex, or either sex. Heterosexuals- other sex Bisexuals - either sex Homosexuals- same sex (gays, lesbians) 5-8% of the population Not an all or none distinction . . .it's better to view heterosexuality and homosexuality as end points on a continuum. Homosexual experimentation if fairly common during adolescence
question
Environmental Theories (Theories of Sexual Orientation)
answer
Freud's theory and Behavioral Theorists ideas No support for either Extremely feminine boys and masculine behavior in girls does predict the subsequent development of homosexuality. 75-90% of highly feminine young boys eventually turn out to be gay Most report early leanings before they even understood what sex was really about.
question
Differential reinforcement (Theories of Sexual Orientation)
answer
Children are rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviors Punished for behaviors considered more appropriate for members of the other sex By second year of life, parents discourage cross-sex play
question
Biological Theories (Theories of Sexual Orientation)
answer
Hormone levels only slightly different as a function of orientation Twin studies with 1 gay, male twin 52% of MZ twins also gay 22% of DZ twins also gay Similar results with lesbian twins Suggests a genetic predisposition Anatomical differences in brain Anterior hypothalamus known to be bigger in Men than Women was found to be ½ as large in gay men.
question
Sexual Development: Adolescence
answer
Most teens in the U.S. believe that sex, in the context of a committed relationship is acceptable, but casual sex is much less acceptable The double standard has declined, but not disappeared Teens are confused about sexual norms and tend to view oral sex as significantly less "intimate" than did their parents' generation Mixed messages about what is acceptable Encouraged to be attractive and popular and told should wait to have sex, but discouraged from masturbating
question
Sexual experience?
answer
20% of 15-16 year olds 48% of 17-18 year olds had sexual intercourse 25% had sex when they did not want to because they were drunk or high at the time About 20% didn't use condoms: for the same reasons
question
Erotic Materials and Sexual Motivation
answer
Men more likely to find materials enjoyable and arousing Scripted to appeal to men? Exposure elevates likelihood of overt sexual activity for a few hours after exposure. Contrary to opinion, sex offenders do not have earlier or more extensive exposure Exposure can alter attitudes 3-6 films/wk for 6 wks more liberal Makes people dissatisfied w/ their own sexual interactions
question
Aggressive pornography
answer
In lab increased males' aggressive behavior toward women May make sexual coercion seem less offensive by desensitizing men 90% rapes are never reported 25% of young women are victims of rape or attempted rape Usually not strangers (e.g., date rape) 1 in 7 women are victimized 1 in 12 men admitted to forcing or trying to force date into sex None of these men identified himself as a rapist.
question
Parental Investment Theory
answer
This theory states that mating patterns depend on what each sex must invest (time, energy) Sex with smaller investment must compete (in humans = males) Sex with larger investment gets to choose (in humans = females)
question
Evolutionary Theory predicts (Gender Differences in Mate Preferences)
answer
Men will emphasize attractiveness and youthfulness in choosing a mate Women will emphasize things associated w/ the ability to provide more material resources (e.g., intelligence, income, SES). These priorities are subconscious and hardwired. 10,000 people from 37 cultures confirmed these predictions Exception: Variations in beliefs about female chastity
question
Changes in Gender Roles
answer
The American Time Use Survey shows that in most heterosexual couples with children, the mother typically does about 18 hours of housework and 14 hours of childcare a week, whereas the father does about 10 hours of housework and 7 hours of childcare a week. In contrast, fathers spend more hours working outside the home (37 hours per week) compared to mothers (21 hours). Even when these roles are reversed and men are the stay at home parent, research indicates that couples most likely divide their at home labor responsibilities along traditional lines. The birth of a child tends to make even egalitarian couples divide their labors in more traditional ways than they did before the birth.
question
Social Cognition
answer
Thinking about the perceptions, thoughts, emotions, motives, and behaviors of self, other people, groups, and even whole social systems Ability to understand human psychology, describe other people, and adopt other people's perspectives To get at what children think other people know, researchers use a task called the false belief task. A false belief task assesses the understanding that: People can hold incorrect beliefs These beliefs, even though incorrect, can influence their behavior
question
Theory of mind
answer
Understanding that people have mental states such as desires, beliefs, and intentions and that these mental states guide their behavior Abilities considered important early steps in developing a theory of mind Joint attention Understanding intentions Pretend play Imitation Emotional understanding
question
Autism
answer
Autism is the most common of the Pervasive Developmental Disorders, affecting an estimated 1 in 250 births (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003). This means that as many as 1.5 million Americans today are believed to have some form of autism. The overall incidence of autism is consistent around the globe, but is four times more prevalent in boys than girls. Autism knows no racial, ethnic, or social boundaries, and family income, lifestyle, and educational levels do not affect the chance of autism's occurrence. Autism rates are NOT increasing exponentially. The increased prevalence is due to increased diagnosis & reporting - which is a good thing, because more children are being helped. Appears during first three years of life Neurological disorder that affects functioning of the brain Poor interpersonal and communication skills
question
Characteristics of Autism
answer
Resistance to change; likes repetition - Difficulty expressing needs Laughing, crying for reasons not apparent to others - Aloof May not want to cuddle - Little eye contact There are many myths and misconceptions about autism. Contrary to popular belief, many autistic children do make eye contact; it just may be less or different from a non-autistic child. Many children with autism can develop good functional language and others can develop some type of communication skills, such as sign language or use of pictures. Children do not "outgrow" autism but symptoms may lessen as the child develops and receives treatment.
question
Social Cognition Development
answer
Another important aspect of social cognitive development is outgrowing egocentrism and developing perspective-taking skills By age 8-10, children appreciate that two people can have different points of view By age 11-12 children begin to attempt to explain why people do what they do By age 12, they become capable of mentally juggling multiple perspectives Example: When Jill sees her friend Jack running down the stairs and falls flat on his face, she may find this funny, but does not laugh because she knows Jack doesn't find this funny. In not laughing Jill is demonstrating role-taking skills. Social cognitive skills continue to improve after adolescence Elderly people continue to display sophisticated social cognitive skills When elderly adults do show declines, they are due to declines in fluid intelligence, executive control processes, information processing speed, and memory
question
Social modeling
answer
strongest during preschool years. internalize prosocial rules (Example: Stopping to help a stranger change a flat tire would exemplify prosocial behavior) Studies show that the although moral reasoning of young children does not predict their behavior very well, the research on older children, adolescents, and adults shows some relationship between moral reasoning and behavior. That is, individuals at higher moral stages are more likely than those at lower stages to behave pro socially, and are less likely than those at lower stages to cheat or engage in criminal activity. However, this relationship is typically weak, suggesting that there are other factors that influence whether a person will behave morally in daily life. Social learning theory focuses on the behavior component of morality. Albert Bandura believes that Self-Regulation is the key mechanism that monitors and evaluates one's actions and produces moral actions
question
Emotional component (also known as Affective component) (Three Basic Components of Morality)
answer
Feelings regarding right or wrong actions that motivate moral thoughts
question
Cognitive component (Three Basic Components of Morality)
answer
How we think about right and wrong and make decisions about how to behave (Example: finding you haven't paid for a case of beer that was in the bottom of your shopping cart. Do you go back and pay for it or justify that the store is so big that it really doesn't need the money?)
question
Behavioral component (Three Basic Components of Morality)
answer
How we behave when we experience the temptation to cheat or are called upon to help a needy person
question
Empathy
answer
Vicarious experiencing of another person's feelings Important for moral development Can motivate prosocial behavior Keeps us from engaging in antisocial behavior Moral emotions motivate moral behavior Early relationships with parents lead to moral development Children must internalize moral standards to behave morally even when no authority figure is present
question
Preconventional morality (Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning)
answer
Moral reasoning is based on external forces (e.g., promise of reward or threat of punishment)
question
Conventional morality (Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning)
answer
Look towards society's norms for moral guidance (e.g., must have both elements of intention and the act of harm to be considered a crime - So if a child accidentally breaks a bowl trying to help mom make cookies, mom would be at this level if she understood this wasn't intentional and was an accident) Most of us operate at this level of moral reasoning
question
Postconventional morality (Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning)
answer
Moral reasoning based on a personal moral code (may or may not coincide with laws)
question
Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning
answer
Moral Reasoning is best defined as the thought process used to determine if an act is right or wrong. Longitudinal Studies show that People move through stages in a fixed order, Few people regress to lower stages, and changes are Slow and gradual preconventional decreases in early adolescence conventional reasoning increases throughout adolescence Most people don't reach post-conventional level - In fact, post-conventional morality is so rare that there is not clear evidence that Kohlberg's stage 6 actually follows stage 5. This highest level of moral reasoning is still a matter of speculation and may represent a philosophical orientation that lies beyond the realm of commonplace, spontaneous moral thought.
question
Moral Understandings (Piaget's Perspective)
answer
Premoral period (preschool years) - Children have little awareness of rules so cannot be considered moral Heteronomous morality (6-10): Children take rules seriously; focus on consequences (extent of damage done), ignoring violator's intentions, when judging actions Autonomous morality (10-11): rules viewed as agreements that can change through consensus; focus on intentions (good or bad) more than consequences when judging actions Piaget and Kohlberg believed that: Young children were primarily focused on the consequences of acts Children distinguish between different kinds of rules Moral rules: Standards that focus on the welfare and basic rights of individuals Social-conventional rules: Standards determined by social consensus that tell us what is appropriate in particular social settings
question
Love withdrawal (Nurturing Morality)
answer
withholding attention, affection, or approval after child misbehaves (Example: When Luci does something her dad doesn't like, he walks away from her rather than give her attention for her misbehavior)
question
Power assertion (Nurturing Morality)
answer
using power to spank or taking away privileges as a form of punishment *Associated with moral immaturity rather than maturity
question
Induction (Nurturing Morality)
answer
explaining to a child why behavior is wrong and should be changed by emphasizing how it affects other people Hoffman (2000) says induction breeds empathy and therefore is most effective Works best if children are high in fearfulness and effortful control, which shows that the factor of temperament can impact moral development
question
Best Parenting Approach?
answer
The best parenting approach for fostering moral growth in children is a blend of frequent inductions, occasional power assertions, and a lot of affection.
question
Antisocial Behavior
answer
Correlated with coercive family environments (those in which threatening, yelling, and hitting is used to exert control over other family members) - Repeats itself across generations Patterson's Coercive Family Environments Highly antisocial children and adolescents: Often grow up in coercive family environments where Family members are locked in power struggles Trying to control the others through negative, coercive tactics. Antisocial behavior begins with poor parental discipline.
question
Primary emotions (Early Emotional Development)
answer
Birth: contentment, interest, distress 3 mo: joy, excitement, surprise, disgust 4 mo: anger 5 mo: fear
question
Secondary (self-conscious) emotions (Early Emotional Development)
answer
18 mo: embarrassment 24 mo: pride, shame, and guilt Emergence of emotions tied to cognitive development Shaped by interactions with parents Parents selectively respond more to + and less to - emotions so over time children show fewer - emotions.
question
What is ATTACHMENT?
answer
The strong, affectionate ties we feel for special people in our lives (emotional bonds) Can buffer the effects of stress Perceived more important than actual The internal working models in the attachment process are important because they are a key mechanism that allows early experience to impact later behaviors Social relationships or attachment bonds offer us social and emotional support that helps provide us inner strength that protects us from stress The ethological perspective asserts that the sensitive period for human attachment relationships typically lasts for just the first three years after birth.
question
Phase 3 - Active proximity seeking / true attachment (6-7 mos. to 3 years) Separation anxiety / Stranger Anxiety (Four Phases of Attachment)
answer
Clear attachments are shown; often to mother Here we begin to see signs of "clear cut" attachments. This initial attachment is most often to the mother, but later extends to fathers and others (siblings, grandparents). By this age, the infant will clearly prefer some people over others and there are signs of emotional bonds. Infants will try hard to maintain the presence of their primary caregiver—they will crawl up to her, climb on her, follow her around. They use her as a secure base from which to explore—so they'll venture into the environment and then return to her for emotional support. One of the signs of this genuine attachment is separation anxiety. That is, the infant will become very upset when the adult they rely on leaves.
question
Secure (Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test)
answer
Child explores when caregiver is present. Child is comfortable around strangers when caregiver is present. At least mildly distressed when taken away from caregiver Happy to be reunited Sensitive, responsive
question
Resistant (Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test)
answer
Clingy fearful of stranger when caregiver is present extremely upset when taken away from caregiver seeks contact when caregiver returned but resents being left, angry inconsistent and often unresponsive, depressed
question
Avoidant (Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test)
answer
comfortable when caregiver present but play is not as constructive indifferent towards caregiver and stranger unfazed when caregiver is taken away ignores or avoids caregiver rejecting, unresponsive or intrusive, overly stimulating
question
Disorganized - Disoriented (Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test)
answer
child is not comfortable even when caregiver is present confused response to stranger unpredictable confused, may avoid or approach caregiver when returned frightened, overwhelmed
question
Secure attachment (65-70%) (Measuring Infant Attachment)
answer
Uses parent as a Secure base in order to explore the environment Warm, affectionate, responsive infant-parent interactions Longitudinal research on the long term effects of having been securely attached as an infant indicates that a secure attachment in infancy predicted the quality of peer relationships in elementary school
question
Resistant/ ambivalent attachment (10%) (Measuring Infant Attachment)
answer
Infant seeks closeness w/parent Fails to explore High separation anxiety / wary of strangers Parents often inconsistent caregivers
question
Avoidant attachment (15%) (Measuring Infant Attachment)
answer
Unresponsive to their parent Ignore parents and strangers Parents tend to provide too little or too much stimulation
question
Disorganized/disoriented attachment (5-10%) (Measuring Infant Attachment)
answer
Combination of resistant and avoidant Contradictory behaviors (when infant is reunited with parent they tend to act dazed or seek attention but move away if attention appears to be on its way) Occurs in many physically abused children Highly associated with later emotional problems
question
Disinhibited attachment (Measuring Infant Attachment)
answer
Little discrimination in response to known versus strangers Approach then wary (as opposed to wary then approach) Common among institutionalized children
question
Play and Emotional Development
answer
Play and Emotional Development Children spend much time playing •At age one - First pretend playPlay in which one actor, object, or action symbolizes or stands for another Child must have the ability to construct a mental representation of an event (Example: playing dress-up as Spiderman or a princess) •At ages 2-5 - Pretend play blossoms - Social pretend play Preschoolers who engage in considerable amounts of social pretend play tend to be more popular and more socially mature than those who do not •At school age - Playing organized games with rules •Allows children to develop many skills •Associated with the development of motor, cognitive, language, social, and emotional skills, which may contribute to healthy emotional development
question
Peer-group acceptance and popularity
answer
Rejected children, especially are unhappy, alienated, poorly achieving children w/low self-esteem Both teachers and parents rate rejected children as having a wide range of social and emotional problems. Research suggests that being actively disliked (i.e., being classified as rejected ) is related to poor school performance, antisocial behavior and delinquency in adolescence, and criminality in young adulthood. Although research shows that smarter and more attractive children are more often popular, the most important predictor of whether a child is liked is their social behavior. Popular children communicate with peers in sensitive, friendly, and cooperative ways. When they don't understand another child's reaction they ask for an explanation. When they want to join a game that has already started, they adapt their behavior to fit the group. Rejected children on the other hand, show higher rates of hostility, conflict w/others, and impulsivity. They are also more likely to misinterpret innocent behaviors of peers as hostile and to act on anger.
question
Friendships in Adolescence
answer
Created on the basis of mutual intimacy and loyalty Gender differences Females- serves to fulfill communal needs (dyads) Males- serves to fulfill status / mastery needs (groups) Promote Social Development Provides opportunities to explore self and develop deep understanding of another, Helps young people deal w/stress of adolescence, and Promotes good school adjustment Why do adolescents experience mildly negative moods more often than children? They experience more negative life events May not be as able as adults to regulate negative emotions May choose to savor negative or mixed emotions at times - The may choose to ruminate or dwell unproductively on their problems - Seen more in girls than in boys as a way to cope with their problems A big disadvantage of co-rumination is that it can increase the negative effects of one's anxiety
question
Attachment to Parents
answer
What influences how adolescents are drawn to different types of cliques/crowds? Research reveals that family influences are important. In a study of 8,000 9th to 12th graders, adolescents who described their parents as authoritative (they set reasonable demands and consistently enforced them by setting limits- but also expressed warmth and affection and are involved in child's life) were members of the "brain" "jock" and popular" groups. In contrast, those whose parents were permissive (although warm and accepting, they avoided making demands of any kind) valued interpersonal relationships and aligned themselves with the "fun culture" or "partier" crowd. And those who viewed their parents as uninvolved most often were affiliated with the "druggie" crowd.
question
Anxious / Ambivalent Romantic Partners (20%) (Relationships & Attachment Style)
answer
High breakup rate despite deep involvement Worry/anxiety about rejection during daily interactions Tendency to self-disclose to every one and like others to disclose Jealous and untrusting - Preoccupied with personal relationships; can't turn thoughts away Hostility and anger Intense grieving following loss Afraid of separation Jealous and possessive
question
Avoidant Romantic Partners (25%) (Relationships & Attachment Style)
answer
Less invested in relationships More casual sex Find social interactions boring and irrelevant Do not like self-disclosure by self and other
question
What Strengthens Relationships?
answer
Equity - a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it Self-disclosure - revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others Trust Greatest influence on mate selection Homogamy (similarity) People may also look for complementarity Partners who are different from them but who have strengths that compensate for their own weaknesses
question
Adult Friendships
answer
Friendships between Women involve more self-disclosure & mutual support •Friendships between Men involve engaging in activities, sharing useful information, and are more competitive •Friendships- They look for quality not quantity
question
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
answer
Time perception influences our social goals Older adults have a perception of time running out, which creates a trend toward smaller social networks with age, mainly social networks of close family and friends Negative emotions are less common in older adults than in younger adults Activities with friends increase positive affect and life satisfaction in older adults providing support that can improve their health and well being
