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learning

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a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

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behaviorism

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theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors

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associative learning

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occurs when we make a connection, between two events

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conditioning

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the process of learning associations

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classical

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Organisms learn the association between two stimuli.

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operant

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Organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence

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observational

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The learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior

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mental processes

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Observational learning is different from the associative learning described by behaviorism because it relies_______________

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classical

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in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus

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reflex

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unlearned part of classical conditioning is based on the fact that some stimuli automatically produce certain responses apart from any prior learning

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unconditioned

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reflex has what type of response and stimulus?

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unconditioned stimulus

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stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

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unconditioned response

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response that produces a response without prior learning

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conditioned stimulus

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previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned response

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learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US pairing

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acquisition

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initial learning of the connection between the Unconditioned Stimulus and Conditioned Stimulus when these two stimuli are paired

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contiguity

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that the CS and US are presented very close together in time—even a mere fraction of a second

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contingency

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the Conditioned Stimulus must not only precede the Unconditioned Stimulus closely in time, it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way

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generalization

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in classical conditioning the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

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discrimination

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classical conditioning is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others

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extinction

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in classical conditioning is the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent

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spontaneous recovery

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the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning

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watson rayner

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demonstrated classical conditioning's role in the development of fears with an infant named Albert.

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counterconditioning

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classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.

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aversive

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form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus

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immunosuppression

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decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person's ability to fight disease

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taste aversion

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special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea

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cs, us,ur,cr

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n taste aversion, the taste or flavor is the ______; the agent that made the person sick is the ______; nausea or vomiting is the ______; and taste aversion is the ______.

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habituation

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the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

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involuntary, voluntary

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explains how neutral stimuli become associated with ________ responses. Classical conditioning is not as effective, however, in explaining __________ behaviors

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instrumental

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another name for operant conditioning

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operant

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associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence

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skinner

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developed the concept of operant conditioning

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thorndike

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established the power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior

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thorndike law of effect

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states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened

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shaping

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rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior

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brain activity operant

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Recent research reveals considerable interest in discovering the links between

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reinforcement

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process by which a stimulus or even following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again

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positive reinforcement

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of a behavior increases because it is followed by the presentation of something that increases the likelihood the behavior will be repeated.

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negative reinforcement

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the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something.

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increasing a behavior

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Whether it is positive or negative, reinforcement is about______________

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avoidance learning

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occurs when the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided.

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learned helplessness

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Experience with unavoidable negative stimuli can lead to a particular deficit in avoidance learning

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primary

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_________ reinforcer does not require any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable.

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food, water, sex

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3 examples of primary reinforcers

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secondary

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_________ reinforcer acquires its positive value through an organism's experience

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A on test, paycheck

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examples of secondary reinforcers

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generalization

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in operant conditioning it means performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation

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discrimination

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in operant conditioning, means responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced

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extinction

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In operant conditioning, this occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency.

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continuous

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in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

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partial

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in which a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time

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schedules of reinforcement

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specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

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ratio scedules

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involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward

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fixed schedule

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the number of behaviors or the amount of time is always the same.

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interval schedule

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refer to the amount of time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded

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variable schedule

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required number of behaviors or the amount of time that must pass changes and is unpredictable from the perspective of the learner

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factory requires workers certain #, every 20 pulls 5 back

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example of fixed-ratio

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slot machines average

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example of variable-ratio

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behaviors

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ratio schedules of reinforcement are based on the number of ________ that occur

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time elapsed

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interval reinforcement schedules are determined by the _______ since the last behavior was rewarded

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studies harder before test, dog sits next to food bowl before dinner

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examples of fixed-interval

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pop-quizzes

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example of variable-interval

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punishment

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consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur

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positive punishment

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a behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus,

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negative punishment

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behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed

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spanking, running

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examples of positive punishment

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grounding

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example of negative punishment

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mental processes behavior

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behavioral approaches have been criticized for ignoring ________ and focusing only on observable _______

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applied behavior analysis

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the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

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bandura

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who says "By observing other people, we can acquire knowledge, skills, rules, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes"

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imitating, modeling

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2 other names for observational learning

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attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement

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4 main processes in observational learning

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motor reproduction

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is the process of imitating the model's actions

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retention

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To reproduce a model's actions, you must encode the information and keep it in memory so that you can retrieve it.

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purposiveness

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the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed

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tolman

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who discovered purposiveness behavior?

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implicit latent

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unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.

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kohler

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he believed that cognitive factors play a significant role in learning.

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apes

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what animal did kohler study?

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insight learning

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form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden knowledge into or understanding of a problem's solution

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instinctive drift

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the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

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preparedness

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species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

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mindset

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describe the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn.

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studying apes

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example of insight

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insight

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which learning is not trial & error

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latent/implicit

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what learning do you learn it, then apply it later?

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raccoon learns but goes back

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example of instinctive drift

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fear of snakes

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example of preparedness

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instinctive drift, preparedness

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2 biological constraints

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variable-ratio

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The schedule of reinforcement that is most resistant to extinction is the

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classical

answer

taste aversion is an example of what conditioning?

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