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classical conditioning

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a types of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. Classical pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

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stimulus

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any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds; plural is stimuli

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reflex

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an involuntary response to a particular stimulus, such as the eyeblink reponse to a puff of air or salivation when food is placed in the month

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conditioned reflex

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a learned involuntary response. Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sight of food or rattling of food dishes was an example of this reflex.

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unconditional response

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a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. Synonymous with unlearned.

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unconditioned stimulus

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a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning. The tone was this type of stimulus in Pavlov's studies. The water spray in our classroom was the unconditioned stimulus. Paired up with the unconditioned response enough and both become conditioned.

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conditioned stimulus

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a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned repsonse

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conditioned response

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the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus

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higher-order conditioning

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conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals. Going to the doc to get blood drawn...starts with sitting in that chair, then the turniquet is wrapped around the arm, etc. Each step is tellin you pain is about to happen causing additional conditioned responses to occur.

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period

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generalization

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in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

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taste aversion

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the intense dislike and/or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort. Helped prove Seligman's theory that humans are prepared to associate certain stimuli with particular consequences.

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trial and error learning

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learning that occurs when a response is associated with a successful solution to a problem after a number of unsuccessful responses

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law of effect

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one of thorndike's laws of learning, which states that the consequence, or effect of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which the frequency of a voluntary behavior changes because of the consequences that the behavior produces

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reinforcer

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anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the probability that it will occur

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shaping

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an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response, thereby gradually guiding the responses toward the ultimate goal

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skinner box

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a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject used in operant conditioning experiments

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successive approximations

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a series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to to the final desired response

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extinction

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in operant conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of the withholding of reinforcement

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generalization

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in operant conditioning, the tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced

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discriminative stimulus

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a stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished

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reinforcement

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an increase in the frequency of a behavior that occurs as the result of the consequence that the behavior produces. Reinforcement increases or strengthens a behavior.

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positive reinforcement

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any pleasant or desirable consequence that increases the probability that the response will be repeated.

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negative reinforcement

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an increase in behavior that occurs because increasing the behavior results in the termination of an unpleasant condition or stimulus

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primary reinforcer

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a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning

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secondary reinforcer

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a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers

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cognitive processes

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mental processes such as thinking, knowingm problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations

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insight

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the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent

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latent learning

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learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze

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observational learning

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learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation

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modeling

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another name for observational learning

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Learning

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A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, and attitude. Acquired through experience. Not attributable to illness, injury, or maturation

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Neutral Stimulus

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Has no impact on the audience or subject. A "C" tone to dogs was initially a neutral stimulus. The word "can" in our experiment was the neutral stimulus. When paired with a squirt in the face often enough, it became the conditioned stimulus evoking a conditioned response.

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discrimination

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the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not similar stimuli.

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Watson and Rayner and Little Albert

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trained a small boy to be afraid of a white rabbit by introducing a loud sound when rabbit was present. Proved generalization occurred.

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Robert Rescorla

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Worked with rats, electricity, and tones. The important factor in classical conditioning is whether the conditioned stimulus provides info that reliably predicts the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus. When the tone provided no clue of the shock, the pairings did not lead to conditioning

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Two factors that greatly influence classical conditioning

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1) The number of pairings 2) The temporal effect - Was the unconditioned stimulus immediately paired with the neutral stimulus?

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Garcia and Koelling

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Proved two things that challenged classical conditioning - 1) Because rats avoided flavored water, it challenged the notion that the conditioned stimulus must be present shortly before the unconditioned stimulus 2) Animals are predisposed to make connections.

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Factors Influence Operant Conditioning

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1) Motivation - rats had to be around 70% target body weight. 2) Satisfying consequence 3) Immediacy of the reinforcement - takes months to see results from a diet (that's why it's so hard.) 4) Magnitude of the reinforcement - one student gets $50 for an A but another gets $500

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Thorndyke and the Law of Effect

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Responses closely followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. Cats placed in a puzzle box, food placed outside, cats learned to pull lever to open door.

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Continuous Reinforcement

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reinforcing that is administered after every desired or correct response, the most effective method of conditioning a new response

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Fixed-Ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Ex: FR-30. Pellet given after 30 correct responses. Very effective when you need a constant high response rate - migrant workers in harvesting.

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Variable-Ratio Schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. ex: VR-5. Rat would get a pellet on avg every fifth time, but could be after 1 or after 13. Effective for slot machines

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Fixed Interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. ex: FI5 - the first correct response after five minutes have elapsed. Monthly paycheck is an example...procrastination can occur right after the payday too.

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Variable Interval Schedule

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Help eliminate the pause after fixed interval - a reinforcer is given after the first correct response following a varying time of nonreinforced responses (based on avg times.) ex: Drug testing (you'll be tested on average twice during the season.) Keeps people constantly on their toes.

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Punishment

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Decrease in the frequency of a behavior following some kind of consequence.

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Positive punishment

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behavior decreases after the addition of an unpleasant consequence. Decreases the probability that the response will be repeated. Student stops staying up late after sleeping through an important exam.

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Negative punishment

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Behavior decreases after the removal of a pleasant consequence.

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Disadvantages of punishment

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1) Doesn't eliminate a behavior, just removes it in the presence of a punishing agent. 2) Doesn't help ppl develop right behaviors 3) Person can feel fearful or hostile towards punisher 4) Punsihment can lead to aggression

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Keys to punishment

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1) Consistency 2) minimum severity used to control the behavior

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Learned Helplessness

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hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events - Martin Seligman. Dog experiment using shocks and harnesses.

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Wolfgang Kohler

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A Gestalt psychologist who became known for his experiments with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving. He believed that by perceiving the whole situation, chimps were able to create novel solutions to problems (rather than just by trial and error). Through insight, chimps were able to use props in order to retrieve rewards. Theory of "aha moments." He was at odds with Behavioralists. They think behavior springs from primary reinforcement.

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Albert Bandura

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pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

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Edward Tolman

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organisms can also learn in the absence of reinforcement--> unreinforced rats had developed a cognitive map (mental representation of the maze)

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Ian Pavlov (1849-1936)

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Experimented on the physiology of digestion, which own him a Nobel Prize in 1904 - 1st time Russian received this honor - "salivary response in dogs" " classical conditioning"

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Extinction

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IN classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

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Inhibitory Effect

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Suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior

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Disinhibitory Effect

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Displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment

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Elicitation Effect

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Exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation

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Modeling Effect

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Learning a new behavior form a model through the acquisition of new responses

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Model

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the individual who demonstrates a behavior or what behavior is imitated

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Token Economy

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a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges

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Behavior Modification

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a method of changing behavior thorugh a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning aperant conditioning on observational learning

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Bio-feedback

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the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn, with practice to exercise control over them

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Avoidance Learning

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Learning to avoid events or condition associated with adverse consequences or phobias

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Punishment

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a decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind of consequence

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Partial Reinforcement Effect

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the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced

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Schedule of reinforcement

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a systematic process for administering partial reinforcement that produces a distinct rate and pattern of responses and degree of resistance to extinction

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Partial Reinforcement

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a pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all correct responses are reinforced

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Mary Cover Jones

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the researcher that paired a pleasant stimulus (a favorite food) with the feared object (rabbit) to use classical conditioning to rid "little peter" of his fear of rabits

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Little Peter

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Made child fear a white rabbit and counterconditioned him to be less and less afraid of the rabbit by having it in the vicinity and presenting something he likes at the same time, lessening the fear.

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Physiology

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the study of how the body and its parts work or function

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Escape Learning

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a type of learning in which an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation

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Partial Reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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Partial Reinforcement Effect

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the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction

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Schedule of Reinforcement

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a timetable for when and how often reinforcement for a particular behavior occurs

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Avoidance Learning

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learning that has occurred when an organism engages in a response that prevents aversive stimulation from occurring

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Biofeedback

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a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

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Behavior Modification

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psychotherapy that seeks to extinguish or inhibit abnormal or maladaptive behavior by reinforcing desired behavior and extinguishing undesired behavior

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Token Economy

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an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

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Partial Reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will continue; Four types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval; interval means over a time and ratio means an act; partial reinforcement is on a variable schedule whereas continuous reinforcement is on a fixed schedule; variable schedules are more effective in learning

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Partial-Reinforcement Effect

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a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule

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Aggressive Behavior

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Belligerently or violently confronting another with your preferences, feelings, needs, or rights with little regard for the situation or for the feelings or rights of others

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Bobo Doll

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(bop bag) experiment held in 1940s; kids placed in room with bobo doll and hammer, nothing happened; second group show movie where adult hits bag with hammer and the kids followed suit when placed with bag and hammer; people's behavior can become more violent as a result of violent media

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Inhibitory Effect

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suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior

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Socio-Cognitive Learning

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Language develops from the interaction of language, cognitive and social knowledge are parts of human development

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Elicitation Effect

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exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation

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Disinhibitory Effect

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displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment

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Modeling Effect

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Learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses

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Model

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the act of representing something (usually on a smaller scale)

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Albert Bandura

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Bobo doll and observational learning

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Observation Learning

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observer must be physically capable of performing a behavior; observer must be cognitiviely capable of performing a behavior and motivated to perform a behavior

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Tolman

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called mental picture a cognitive map

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Kohler (Wolfgang)

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believed such learning took place because of a cognitive concept called insight

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Skinner

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doesn't belong with Kohler, Tolman or Bandura

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Modeling effect

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step by step process - first learned to do wash

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Primary Reinforcers

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Food, water and sleep

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Elicitation Effect

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whenever you observe how others are dressed as a means for determining how you dress in a particular social setting, the observational learning taking place is known as the ...

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Respodet Conditioning

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is learning by assocation (as is Pavlovian and classical)

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Skinner

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shaping; operant via box

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