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Psychology

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the science of behavior and mental processes;

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Influence on psychology

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philiosophy and physical science(biology&physiology)

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Interactive dualism

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promoted by Rene' Descartes, french phil, the idea that the mind and body are separate entities; big debate on relations with brain and mental activity.

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Nature-Nurture issue

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the debate is often framed in terms of heredity (nature) versus environment (nurture).

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Wilhem Wundt

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Founder of psychology;Wundt defined psychology as the study of consciousness and emphasized the use of experimental methods to study and measure consciousness.

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Edward B. Titchener

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Structuralism;the first major school of thought in psychology; it held that complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental structures, or component parts, of sensations and feelings.

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Introspection

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titchener to identify structure of conscious thought. limitations being unreliable led to demise of structuralism.

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William James

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american;Functionalism- importance of how behavior functions to adapt to enviorments. examined psychology applied to education, children, & work. importance of adaptation like charles darwin.

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Sigmund Freud

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founder of psychoanalysis

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Behaviorism

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Ivan Pavlov, John B watson, B.f Skinner; the study of overt behavior- observable behaviors that could objectively be measured and verify.- classical conditioning

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Humanistic Psychology

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3rd force; carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow ; emphasized the CONSCIOUS experiences, including a persons unique potential for psych growth and Self determination, free will and importance of choice in human behavior.

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behavioral perspective

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emphasizes how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental causes

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humanistic perspective

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focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a person's self-concept, and the importance of choice and selfdirection in striving to reach one's potential.

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positive psychology

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perspective focuses on the study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster those qualities in individuals and communities.

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topics of positive psychology

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a. personal happiness b. optimism c. creativity d. resilience e. character strength f. wisdom

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cognitive perspective

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focuses on the important role of mental processes in how people process and remember information, develop language, solve problems, and think.

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Clinical psychology

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which involves extensive training in evaluating and diagnosing psychological disorders, psychotherapy techniques, and psychological testing.

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Cognitive psychology

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which involves the investigation of mental processes, including reasoning and thinking, problem solving, memory, perception, mental imagery, and language.

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Experimental psychology

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which is the term traditionally used to describe research involving such basic topics as sensory and perceptual processes, principles of learning, emotion, and motivation.

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Developmental psychology

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which involves the study of the physical, social, and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages of the lifespan

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Learning

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a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of an individual's experience.

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Conditioning

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is the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. There are two basic types of conditioning: - Classical conditioning - Operant conditioning

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Classical Conditioning

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Associating Stimuli;a process of learning an association between two stimuli; it involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unlearned, natural stimulus that automatically elicits a reflexive response.

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Ivan Pavlov

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Russian physiologist who first described the basic process of conditioning that is now called classical conditioning.

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

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The natural stimulus that reflexively produces a response without prior learning

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unconditioned response (UCR).

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The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (CS

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an originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a reflexive response.

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conditioned response (CR

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the learned, reflexive response to a previously neutral stimulus.

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Factors That Affect Conditioning

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- The more frequently the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired, the stronger is the association between the two. -The timing of stimulus presentations also affects the strength of the conditioned response;Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination /Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

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Stimulus generalization

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occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response

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Stimulus discrimination

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occurs when a particular conditioned response is made to one specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli.

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extinction

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in Classical Cond.the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of the conditioned response. Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

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Spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus

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John B. Watson

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an American psychologist, founded behaviorism. Watson emphasized the scientific study of behavior and rejected the methods of introspection and the study of consciousness. Watson believed that virtually all human behavior is the result of past experience and environmental influences.

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Operant Conditioning

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Association behaviors and consequences; deals with the learning of active voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by consequences.

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B.F Skinner

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American psychologist B. F. Skinner searched for the "lawful processes" that would explain "order in behavior." He believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying only phenomena that could be objectively measured and verified—outwardly observable behavior and environmental events. 2. Skinner coined the term operant to describe any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences." His principles of operant conditioning explain how we acquire the wide range of voluntary behaviors we perform in daily life.

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positive reinforcement

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increasing future behavior; said to occur when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated.

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Positive Reinforcement

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incolves following an operant with the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. response is strong.repeated behavior

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Negative reinforcment.

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an operant that is followed by the removal of an AVERSIVE stimulus. Aversive stimuli typically involve physical or psychological discomfort that an organism seeks to escape or avoid, called escape behavior or avoidance behavior

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Primary reinforcer

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one that is naturally reinforcing for a given species;(ie.Food, water, warmth, sex)

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Punishment by Application

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Positive Punishment; incolves a response being followed by the presentation of an aversive stimuli

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punshment by Removal

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a response being followed by the loss of a refinforceing stimuli

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: Alternatives to Punishment

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skinner thought: The effectiveness of positive reinforcement can be enhanced in several ways. a. Reinforce an incompatible behavior (alternative behavior) b. Stop reinforcing the problem behavior c. Reinforce the non-occurrence of the problem behavior d. Remove the opportunity to obtain positive reinforcement

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Shaping

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involves reinforcing successively closer approximations of a behavior until the correct behavior is displayed.

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Continuous reinforcement

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is a pattern of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced.

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Partial reinforcement

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is a pattern of reinforcement in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer.

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Schedules of reinforcement:

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fixed-ratio (FR) schedule;variable-ratio (VR) schedule;fixed-interval (FI) schedule;variable-interval (VI) schedule

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fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

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reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.

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variable-ratio (VR) schedule

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reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, which varies from trial to trial. Variable-ratio schedules produce high, steady rates of responding.

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fixed-interval (FI) schedule

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a reinforcer is delivered for the first response emitted after the preset time interval has elapsed.

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variable-interval (VI) schedule

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reinforcement occurs for the first response emitted after an average amount of time has elapsed, but the interval varies from trial to trial.

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Observational learning

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is learning that occurs through observing the actions of others.

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Albert Bandura

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believes that observational learning is the result of cognitive processes that are "actively judgmental and constructive," not merely "mechanical copying." -believes that reinforcement is not essential for learning to occur; rather, the expectation of reinforcement affects the performance of what has been learned -suggests that cognitive processes interact to determine whether imitation will occur.

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Alber Bandura process of Immitation

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-paying attention to the other person's behavior, - forming and storing mental representations of the behavior to be imitated, - being motivated to imitate the behavior by some expectation that doing so will produce reinforcement or reward.

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Psychoanalysis

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the theory of personality that emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior, sexual and aggressive instinctual drives, and the enduring effects of early childhood experience on personality development.

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Freud Dynamic Theory of Personality

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Freud saw personality and behavior as resulting from a constant interplay between conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness.

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S.Freud Levels of Awareness

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Consicious Level:All the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that you are aware of at this particular moment Preconscious: Infor of wich your not aware of but easily attainable; Inconscious: Unaware of submerged thoughts feeling and wishes exerted to influence conscoius thought and behavvior."freduian Slips'

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Structure of Personality

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Id, Ego and Super Ego

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Id

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unconscious and present at birth; immune to logic values moratliy danger and demands. ruled by Pleasure Principle. immediate satisfaction

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Ego

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partly conscious, represents the organized, rational and planning of personality. reality principle

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Super Ego

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internal parental voice partly conscoius; parental and societal values; acceptability of behavior and thoughts.

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nonassociativve learning

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learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a stimulus

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latent inhibition

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the slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimuls is already familiar compared to when the conditioned stimulus is unfamiliar.

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systematic desensitization

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a type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear.

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latent learning

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learning that occurs in absence of reinforcements.

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imitation

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the copying of behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously.

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Ego Defense Mechanisms

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the ego may temporarily reduce anxiety by distorting thoughts or perceptions of reality through this processes

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Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms

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Repression(unconscious forgetting),

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5 phsycosexual Stages

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Oral-infants chews and bites Anal- pleasures derived thru elimination Phallic-pleasure seeking w/ genitals Latency-calm period Genital-focus on genitals

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fixation

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unresolved developmental conflicts. freud says at each stage a child might get fixated, and needs to over come that in order to move on to next stage

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The Oedipus Comples

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psychosexual drama; a childs sexual desire for the opposite sex parent. usually has hostile feelings toward the same sex parent.

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The Neo-Freudians

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S.Freuds descendants and dissenters; the disagreed with freud on 3 points: -belief that behavior was motivated by sexual urges -contention that personality is determined by early childhood exp -general pessimistic view of human nature and society

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Alfred Adler

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Freud student; inferiority and superiority. Adler believed that the most fundamental human motive is striving for superiority—the desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move toward self-perfection and self-realization

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Freudian threory criticism

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Inadequacy of evidence; lack of testability

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Humanistic psychology

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emphasizes human potential and unique human character.(selfaware;freewill) humans are good;

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Abraham Maslow

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contribute to humanistic; developed hierarchy of needs and the concept of self actualization

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Carl Rogers

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psychotherapist; humanistic psych.; claim the most basic human motive is 'actualizing tendency'- the innate drive to maintain and enhance human org. Self Concept- set of perceptions and beliefs that you have about ur self.

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Humanistic perspective on Personality

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-humantheory hard to validate or test scientifically; -psych believe that humanistic psych view of human to optimistic -human psych made contributions to psychotherapy, counseling, education and parenting.

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Social Cognitive Theory

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emphasizes social origins of thoughts and actions, stresses active cognitive process and the human capacity for self regulation;

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Trait Theory

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focuses on identifying, describing and measuring individual differences. traits;-a stable enduring predisposition to behave in a certain way.

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The 5 factor model

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5 dimensions of - extraversion neuroticism agreeableness conscientiousness openness to experiences.

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Trait theory critics

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fail to fully explain human personality fail to explain how or why theres differences fail to address issues, like basic motives or role of unconsciousness

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psychological test

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asses apersons abilities, aptitudes, interests and personality. achieves 2 goals: accurately&Consistantly reflects a persons character. -predicts persons futre psych functioning or behavior.

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projective tests

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personality tests that involves a persons interpreting an ambiguous image; to asses unconscious motives, conflicts, psych defenses and personality traits.

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Roschach inkblot test

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a projective test using inkblots that was developed by swiss psyc herman rorschach;

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strengths and limitations of project tests

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strength-provided a wealth of quality info limitations: situation or examiner can influence results; scoring is subjective;inconsistent skills;cant predict future behavior

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personality tests

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useful strategies that can provide insight about the psyc make up of people

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social influences

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the effect of situational factors and other people on a persons behavior

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social norms

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the "rules' or expectations for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation

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Scientific study of behavior and mental process

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Psychology is defined as the _____________

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is information acquired by direct observation and measurement using systematic scientific methods.

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Empirical Evidence

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Critical thinking

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What is the process of on objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information?

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Psychoanalytic

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The belief that the unconscious mind has an influence on one's behavior s part of what theory of personality?

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Behaviorist

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Dr. Watson from the _______________ school of psychology, focused on objective, observable behavior rather than on the unconscious.

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Voluntary

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According to the humanistic perspective, human behavior is determined by ______________ cause.

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Mental processes, language, and perception

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Cognitive psychology focuses on _________________.

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Correlation Coefficient

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A number that indicates the degree and direction of the relationship between variables is called_________.

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they are the same

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Which is the stronger correlation -1.00 +1.00

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Negative

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An example of a __________________________ correlation is the more absences a student has, the lower their exam scores.

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Heritability

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What is a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors?

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Action potential

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The message that travles along an axon of a neuron is called an____________

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Neurotransmitters

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Chemical messengers that are released by axons and stimulate dendrites on another neuron are called__________.

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Serotonin

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This neurotransmitters affects sleep, appetite, and emotional states, among other behaviors

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Neuroplasticity

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We are able to learn a new language or a new sport because of the brain's ______________.

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Autonomic, somatic

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The _____________________ nervous system is responsible for involuntary tasks, whereas the _____________ nervous system is responsible for voluntary tasks.

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Thalamus

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What part of the brain receives information from the eyes and relays the information to the visual cortex?

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It is responsible for higher mental processes

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Which of the following is a characteristic of the cerebral cortex?

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Stress

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What is the physical and mental arousal to situations that we perceive as threatening or challenging?

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Life Changes

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The social readjustment raign scale constructed by Holmes and Rahe measures the stress in a person's life on the basis of ____________________.

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Opportunity for advancement

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The most stressful jobs are those that make great demands on performance, but allow little ___________.

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Conflict

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A negative emotional state caused by having to choose between two or more incompatible goals or impulses is called _______________.

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Sympathetic (Fight to flight)

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The "Flight or flee" response is triggered by the __________ nervous system.

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Exhaustion

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After exposure to a severe and prolonged stressor, illness and dealth may occur in the ________ phase of the general adaptation syndrome.

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reducing stress levels and enhancing the immune system

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The risk of developing cancer can be reduced by____

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Cortisol and epinephrine

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The two chemicals released during the fight or flight stress response that are associated with the development of heart disease are _______________.

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Experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder

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People who experience flashbacks, nightmares, and impaired functioning following a life - threatening or other horrifying event are:

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Problem - focused

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If the circumstances that are creting your stress can be changes, ________________ forms of coping are likely to be MOST effective.

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Body cells specialized to receive and process sensory information from the environment.

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Sensory receptors are

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Difference threshold

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The minimum amount of change between two colors that is required to detect a difference between the two colrs is referred to as a

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The pain generally disappears

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Phantom limb pain is believed to be caused by static that arises in the spinal cord area responsible for pain signaling

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wavelength and range

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Both light waves and sound waves vary in

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In dim light, to color wavelengths

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Rods are most sensitive __________, and less sensitive.

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Tympanic membrane

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Sound waves cause the ___ to vibtate and pass the mechanical energy on the three cones in the middle ear.

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Top down processing

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Your ablity to read this snteneve despite its mnay mssippengis is deu to

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Perceptual set

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You get a phone call around lunchtime and expecting the caller to be your husband, and you answer Hi - Honey - but instead it is your boss calling. This is an example o

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Hair Cells

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The cochlea contains _________ which sends messages through the auditory nerve to the areas of the brains that are responsible for interpreting auditory information.

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Opponent - process

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The theory of color vision proposed by Ewals Hering that is bases on three systems of color opposites is called the ___________ theory.

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Interpretation

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The final stage of perception is called _________.

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throughout the muscles, joints, and tendons of the body.

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Kinesthetic receptors are located ______________.

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Consciousness

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________________ can be defined as our awareness of our environment and ourselves.

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Latent

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The __________ content of a dream is the true, unconscious meaning of the dream.

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Activation - synthesis; cognitive

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________________- Theory states that dreams are byproducts of random stimulation of brain suggest that dreams serve an information - processing function and help us experiences and thoughts

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unconditioned stimulus

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Any stimulus that elicits an unconditioned responcse without previous conditioning is

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Stimulus Generalization

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The phenomenon in the little albert experiment in which little albert learned to fear the rat (The CS) but other objects as well, such as a rabbit, is an example of________.

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The Premack principle

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An example of ___________ would be if you did not like to study for psychology, so you decide that you will only fo to the mall (A behavior that you enjoy) after you have spend two hours studying.

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Variable Ratio

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A schedule of reinforcement provides reinforcement for a behavior in an unpredictable manner, number or amount of response, reinforcement varies.

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Reinforcement, punishment

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___________ Increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur, whereas _________ decreases that

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the frequency of a action, Is increased when followed by pleasant consequences

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According to Thorndikes law of effect

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encoding, storage, retrieval

answer

The three steps in memory processing are

question

sensory, short - term and long term

answer

The three storage systems included in the traditional memory model are________.

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Sensory - long term

answer

Short - term memory receives information from ______ Memory.

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Iconic

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Visual sensory memory is referred to as _______ memory.

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Maintenance rehearsal

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The process of repeating information over and over to maintain it in short - term memory

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explicit and implicit

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The two major systems of long - term memory are________.

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Collaborative rehearsal

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This is an encoding technique linking new information to previously stored material in LTM

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Conditions of recovery are similar to encoding conditions.

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The encoding specific principle says that information retrieval is improved when _________.

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deciding the information wasn't important enough to transfer to LTM

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Encoding failure is likely due to...

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repeated practice that builds neural pathways

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Long - term potentiation is a result of...

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vivid images are associated with a surprising or strongly emotional event.

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A flashbulb memory is one in which...

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Cognition

answer

The mental activites involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge are collectively known as...

question

logical rules or formal definitions.

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An artificial or formal concept arises from ..

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Algorithm

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This is a step - by - step procedure that, if followed, will eventually solve a problem.

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functional fixedness

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The tendency to think of an object functioning only in its usual or customary way is called..

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The confirmation bias

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What is the name of the tendency to seek out and pay attention only to information that beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence?

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Fluency, flexibility and originality

answer

Creative thinking is related to...

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Langugage acquisition device

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Chomsky believes we possess an inborn brain capacity to analyze language know as

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General intelligence

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The g factor originally proposed by Charles Spearman is best defined as..........

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A stereotype threat

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This is a psychological predicament in which a person experiences doubt about his or her performance due to negative beliefs about his or her groups ability.

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Freud

answer

psychoanalysis

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Jean Piget

answer

cognitive development of children-mental processes-preception, language, thinking, problem solving

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Memory

answer

acquiring, storing, and retrieving information

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Fundamental process 1

answer

encoding-audio, visual, mental

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Fundamental process 2

answer

storage- always save it

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Fundamental process 3

answer

retrieval- putting it to use

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sensory memory

answer

five senses, attention needed to transfer this information

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short term memory

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working memory, function-conscious processing of information

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chunking

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group small bits of information, expand working memory load

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long-term memory

answer

organize and store information, unlimited capacity

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encoding

answer

process that controls movement from working to long-term memory

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Episodic memory

answer

tied to personal experience, you can actively declare your answers to these questions

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procedural memory

answer

memory that allows you to perform habitual responses, brushing teeth, bike riding

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sematic memory

answer

long-term memory that includes general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names

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tip-of-the-tongue

answer

sensation of being unable to retrieve information we know we know

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why do we forget?

answer

forgetting can occur at any memory stage

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encoding failures

answer

you see penny often, but don't know details

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perception

answer

process by which we organize and interpret patterns of stimuli from the environment, dynamic not static

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scripts

answer

schematas for social events and social interactions, greetings

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stereotypes

answer

schematas about identifiable groups or categories of people

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apparent motion

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stroboscopic motion, virtual reality

question

binocular disparity

answer

difference between two eyes as they focus on an object

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shape and size constancy

answer

objects remain the same size despite changing images on the retina

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perceptual illusions

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the misperception of the true characteristics of an object or image

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attention

answer

is perception, and perception is selective

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contrast

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car, contrast the stimuli from the background

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burnout

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three sources, exhaustion, cynicism, sense of failure

question

unpleasant daydream

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personal failure

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circaium rhythm

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24 hours, free run 25 hours

question

suprachiasmatic nucleus

answer

internal clock

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SAD

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seasonal affect disorder

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REM

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active sleep

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NREM

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quiet sleep

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hypnogogic hallucinations

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occurs at onset of sleep involving vivid sensations

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lucid dream

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you know you're dreaming

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insomnia

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inability to sleep, overestimated sleep loss,

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narcolepsy

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lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep

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sleep apnea

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stop breathing

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REM sleep disorder

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muscle activity not suppressed

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meditation-traditonal

answer

eastern religions, yoga-hindu religion, zen-chinese and japs

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meditation-secular and commercial

answer

western religions, merica

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depressants

answer

alcohol, heroin, barbituates, tranquilizers

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Stimulants

answer

amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine

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hallucinogens

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LSD, Marijuana

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ID

answer

born with, seek pleasure avoid pain

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EGO

answer

reality principle

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SUPER EGO

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moral voice of the community

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Freuds defense mechanism

answer

defend you against guilt and anxiety

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projection

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attributing ones thoughts, feelings, or motives onto others

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displacement

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diverting emotional feelings from the original source

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reaction formation

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behave exactly the opposite of your feelings

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social learning/cognitive perspective

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emphasizes the importance of environmental or situational determinants of personality

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humanistic/phenomenological

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subjective experience of the individual and the development of the self

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maladaptive behavior

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behavior that adversely affects the individual, society, or both

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phobias

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unrealistic fear of almost anything

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panic attacks

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sudden episodes of acute and overwhelming apprehension and terror

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norepinephrine

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neurotransmitter for depression

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paranoid personality disorder

answer

pervasive distrust and suspicious motives, mostly men

question

antisocial personality

answer

sociopath, psychopath, antisocial, disregard and violate rights of others, no guilt, no conscience

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borderline personality disorder

answer

most common personality disorder, mostly women

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dissociative disorder

answer

awareness, memory, or personal identity become divided

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schizophrenia

answer

hallucinations-auditory, caused by too much dopamine

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Counterconditioning

answer

Benny's mother tries to reduce his fear of sailing by giving the 3-year old his favorite candy as soon as they board the boat. The mother's strategy best illustrates ?

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Psycotherapy

answer

Psychological disorders that can be overcome with psychological techniques such as counter-conditioning are most likely to be treated with?

question

neurotransmitters and depression

answer

A biological psychologist would be most interested in conducting research on the relationship between

question

behavior therapy

answer

In on treatment for bed wetting, the child sleeps on a liquid sensitive pad that when wet, triggers an alarm and awakens the child. This treatment is a form of

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Phobias

answer

Behavioral conditioning therapies have achieved especially favorable results in the treatment of

question

tend to overestimate the effectiveness of their psychotherapy

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People often enter psychotherapy during a period of chrisis in their lives. this helps us understand why they

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psychoanalysis

answer

which form of therapy has been criticized for offering interpretations that cannot be proven or disproven

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blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material during therapy

answer

according to psychoanalysts, resistance refers to the

question

reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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Spontaneous recovery refers to the

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Oxytocin

answer

A stress-moderating hormone released by cuddling is associated with pair-bonding is known as

question

associating a pleasant relaxed state with anxiety-arousing stimuli

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systemic desensitization invoves

question

aversive conditioning

answer

Exposure therapies involve replacing a negative response with a positive response, whereas __________ involves relacing a positive response with a negative response

question

SSRIs

answer

Prozac,Zoloft and paxil are called

question

stimulates digestion and slows heat rate

answer

The parasympathetic nervous system

question

client-centered therapy

answer

which therapeutic approach relies most heavily on patients discovering their own ways of effectively dealing with their difficulties

question

behavior modification

answer

reinforcing desired behaviors and withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors is most central the process of?critics of have expresses a concern that appropriate patient behaviors will disappear following the discontinuation of token economy

question

removing or destroying brain tissue

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Psychosurgery involves

question

learning and adaption

answer

a FAP is difficult to study in humans due to

question

mirror neurons

answer

__________ is involved in observations of others doing something the observer has done

question

operant conditioning

answer

the approach that has helped children with autism learn to function successfully in school involves

question

systemic desensitization

answer

A token economy is to operant conditioning as _______ is to classical conditioning

question

observational learning

answer

mirror neurons provide biological correlates for

question

minimize sensory adaption

answer

the constant quivering movements of our eyes enable us to

question

a token economy

answer

the technique reduces people to puppets controlled by therapists! it doesn't respect human freedom. this criticism is most likely to be directed at

question

positive and negative reinforcement

answer

behavior modification, psychoanalysis, cognitive behavioral therapy and group therapies all use what procedures:

question

release

answer

the term catharsis refers to emotional

question

tend to overestimate the effectiveness of psychotherapy

answer

clients often stay in touch with their psychotherapists only if satisfied with the treatment they received . this helps us understand why therapists

question

introspection

answer

looking inward and assessing your immediate sensations, images and feelings is called

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