Flashcards and Answers – Sociology Exam 1
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sociology
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The systematic study of human behavior in society
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Sociological imagination
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the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social influences
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microsociology
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examines the patterns of individuals' social interaction in specific setting
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macrosociology
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examines the large-scale patterns and processes that characterize society as a whole.
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Auguste Comte
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Father of sociology. Maintained study of sociology must be empirical.
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empirical
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information based on observations, experiments, and other data collected
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Harriet Martineau
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Translated and disseminated Comte's work. Emphasized on systematic data collection. Opposed slavery and advocated for women's rights.
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Emile Durkheim
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societies are characterized by unity and cohesion. Sociology must study social facts and social solidarity and harmony is upheld by division of labor.
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Karl Marx
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Viewed development of capitalism as a social change. Believed society is divided into the haves and have-nots.
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Max Weber
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Focused on social organization, subjective understanding of behavior, and value free sociology.
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Jane Addams
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Leader in the women's suffrage movement. Contributed to symbolic interaction.
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W.E.B. Du Bois
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Examined oppressive effects of race and class. Advocated women's rights. Played a key role in reshaping black-white relations in America.
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Functionalism
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Views society as a system of codependent parts that work together to ensure survival. Developed for Comte and Durkheim (macro)
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Functions/Dysfunctions
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Functions: contribute to a society's stability and survival Dysfunctions: Have a negative impact on society
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Manifest/Latent Functions
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Manifest functions: Intended and recognized purposes and activities Latent functions: unintended and unrecognized purposes and activites
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Conflict theory
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Examines how and why groups disagree, struggle over power, and compete for scarce resources. (macro)
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Feminist Theories
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Examine women's social, economic, and political inequality (macro and micro)
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symbolic interactionism
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Examine's individuals everyday behavior through the communication of knowledge, beliefs, ideas, and attitudes (micro)
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social interaction
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a process in which people take each other into account in their own behavior
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social facts
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aspects of the social life, external to the individual, that can be measured
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social solidarity
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social cohesiveness and harmony
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division of labor
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an interdependence of different tasks and occupations, characteristic of industrialized societies, that produces social unity and facilitates change.
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capitalism
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an economic system in which the ownership of the means of production is in private hands.
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independent variable
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a characteristic that has an effect on the dependent variable
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dependent variable
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the outcome that may be affected by the independent variable
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control variable
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a characteristic that is constant during the research process
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deductive reasoning
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an inquiry process that begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is then tested through data collection
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inductive reasoning
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an inquiry process that begins with a specific observation, followed by data collection, a conclusion about patterns or regularities, and the formulation of hypothesis that can lead to theory contruction
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reliability
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the consistency with which the same measure produces similar results time after time
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validity
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the degree to which a measure is accurate and really measures what it claims to measure
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population
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any well-defined group of people (or things) about whom researchers want to know something
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sample
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a group of people (or things) that is representative of the population
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probability sample
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each person has an equal chance of being selected because the selection is random
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nonprobability sample
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there is little or no attempt to get a representative cross section of the population
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qualitative research
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examines nonnumerical material and interprets it
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quantitative research
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focuses on a numerical analysis of people's responses or a specific characteristics
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causation
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a relationship in which one variable is the direct consequence of another
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correlation
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the relationship between two or more variables
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content analysis
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a data collection method that systematically examines some form of communication
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secondary analysis
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examination of data that have been collected by someone else
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evaluation research
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the process of determining whether a social intervention has produced the intended result.
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culture
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the learned and shared behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and material objects that characterize a particular group or society
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society
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a group of people who share a culture and defined territory
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material culture
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the physical objects that people make, use, and share.
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nonmaterial culture
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the ideas that people create to interpret and understand the world
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symbol
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anything that stands for something else and has a particular meaning for people who share a culture
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language
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a system of shared symbols that enables people to communicate with one another
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values
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the standards by which people define what is good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, desirable or undesirable, beautiful or ugly.
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norms
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specific rules of right and wrong behavior.
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folkways
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norms that involve everyday customs, practices, and interaction
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mores
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norms that people consider very important because they maintain moral and ethical behaviors
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taboos
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strong prohibitions of any act that is forbidden because it's considered to be extremely offensive
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laws
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formally defined norms about what is permissible or illegal
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sanctions
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rewards for good or appropriate behavior and/or penalties for bad or inappropriate behavior
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rituals
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formal and repeated behaviors that unite people.
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cultural universals
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customs and practices that are common to all societies
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ideal culture
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the beliefs, values, and norms that people say they hold or follow.
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real culture
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people's actual everyday behavior
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ethnocentrism
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the belief that one's own culture, society, or group is inherently superior to others
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cultural relativism
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the belief that no culture is better than another and should be judged by its own standards
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subcultture
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a group within a society that has distinctive norms, values, beliefs, lifestyle, or language.
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counterculture
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a group within society that openly opposes and/or rejects some of the dominant culture's norms, values, or laws.
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multiculturalism
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(sometimes called cultural pluralism) the coexistence of several cultures in the same geographic area, without one culture dominating another.
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culture shock
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confusion, disorientation, or anxiety that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life
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high culture
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the cultural expression of a society's highest social classes
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popular culture
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the beliefs, practices, activities, and products that are widespread among a population
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cultural capital
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resources such as knowledge, verbal and social skills, education, and other assets that give a group advantages.
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mass media
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forms of communication designed to reach large numbers of people
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cultural imperialism
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the cultural values and products of one society influence or dominate those of another
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cultural integration
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the consistency of various aspects of society that promotes order and stability
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cultural lag
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the gap that occurs when material culture changes faster than nonmaterial culture.
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socialization
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the lifelong process through which people learn culture and become functioning members of society
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internalization
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the process of learning cultural behaviors and expectations so deeply that we accept them without question
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social learning theories
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maintain that people learn new attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through social interaction, especially during childhood
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role models
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people we admire and whose behavior we imitate.
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self
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an awareness of one's social identity
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looking-glass self
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a self-image based on how we think others see us (Cooley)
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role taking
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learning to take the perspective of others
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significant others
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the people who are important in one's life, such as parents (or primary caregivers), siblings, and grandparents
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anticipatory socializaton
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the process of learning how to perform a role one does not yet occupy
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generalized other
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people who don't have close ties to a child but who influence his or her internalization of society's norms and values
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impression management
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the process of providing information and cues to others to present oneself in a favorable light while downplaying or concealing one's less appealing characteristics.
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reference groups
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groups of people who shape an individual's self-image, behavior, values, and attitudes in different contexts.
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socialization agents
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the individuals, groups, or institutions that teach us how to participate effectively in society
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multigenerational household
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homes in which three or more generations live together
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peer group
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people who are similar in age, social status, and interests
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resocialization
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the process of unlearning old ways of doing things and adapting new attitudes, values, norms, and behavior
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total institutions
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settings where people are isolated from the rest of society, stripped of their former identities, and required to conform to new rules and behavior
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direct socialization
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learning through reward and punishment
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indirect socialization
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learning through modeling and imitation
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George Herbert Mead
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"I": creative, imaginative, self-centered, impulsive "Me": successfully socialized and aware of others' attitudes, self-control, and engages in role taking
