PHLT 305 Exam #1 – Flashcards
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The occurrence in a community or region of cases of an illness, specific health-related behavior, or other health-related events clearly in excess of normal expectancy
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Epidemic
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An epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries, and usually affecting a large number of people." Example: the 1918 influenza pandemic (Spanish Flu)
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Pandemic
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is concerned with the distribution and determinants of health and diseases, morbidity, injuries, disability, and mortality in populations. Epidemiologic studies are applied to the control of health problems in populations
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Epidemiology
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All the inhabitants of a given country or area considered together
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Population
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the occurrence of health and disease in the population
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The focus of epidemiology
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The occurrence of diseases and other health outcomes varies in populations, with some subgroups of the populations more frequently affected than others.
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Distribution
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Any factor that brings about change in a health condition or other defined characteristic." Example: biologic agents
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Determinants
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which pertain either to contact with a disease-causing factor or to the amount of the factor that impinges upon a group or individuals.
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Exposures
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All the possible results that may stem from exposure to a causal factor
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Outcomes
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illnesses due to a specific disease or health condition
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Morbidity
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death (e.g., death from various causes)
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Mortality
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Refers to counting the cases of illness or other health outcomes
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Quantification
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Primary, Secondary, Tertiary
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Three types of prevention
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Primary: before the disease occurs (Creation of a healthful environment, implementation of health education programs)
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Primary
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during progression of the disease (Cancer screenings, early detection of other chronic diseases)
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Secondary
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during later stages of the disease (Programs that restore the patients optimal functioning: physical therapy)
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Tertiary
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1.)Use of the interdisciplinary approach 2.)Use of the scientific method 3.)Enhancement of critical thinking ability 4.)Use of quantitative and computer methods 5.)Communication skills 6.)Inculcation of aesthetic values
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Skills acquired through training in epidemiology
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meaning it uses information from many fields including: -Mathematics and bio-statistics -History -Sociology -Demography and geography -Behavioral sciences -Law
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Epidemiology is an interdisciplinary science
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capitalizes upon naturally occurring situations in order to study the occurrence of disease.
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Epidemiology is an observational science
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refers to epidemiologic studies concerned with characterizing the amount and distribution of health and disease within a population.
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Descriptive Epidemiology
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examines causal (etiologic) hypotheses regarding the association between exposures and health conditions.
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Analytic epidemiology
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was one of the founders of the field of toxicology. His contributions include: -The dose-response relationship -The notion of target organ specificity of chemicals
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Paracelsus
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-First to employ quantitative methods -Known as the Columbus of statistics
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John Graunt
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regarded as the founder of the field of occupational medicine.
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Ramazzini
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is thought to be the first person to describe an environmental cause of cancer.
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Sir Percival Pott
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developed a method for smallpox vaccination in 1796.
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Edward Jenner
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disease was transmitted by a miasm, or cloud, that clung low on the surface of the earth.
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miasmatic theory of disease
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-Appointed "Compiler of Abstracts" in England, 1839 -Developed a more sophisticated system for codifying medical conditions -Examined possible linkage between mortality rates and population density
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William Farr
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postulates demonstrated the association between a microorganism and a disease.
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Robert Koch
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1.)The organism must be observed in every case of the disease. 2.)It must be isolated and grown in pure culture. 3.)The pure culture must, when inoculated into a susceptible animal, reproduce the disease. 4.)The organism must be observed in, and recovered from, the experimental animal.
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Koch's Postulates
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discovered the anti-microbial properties of the mold Penicillium notatum in 1928.
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Alexander Fleming
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-Historical -Community health -Health services -Risk assessment -Disease causality
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Uses of Epidemiology
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documents the patterns, types, and causes of morbidity and mortality over time.
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Historical use
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Describes a shift in the patterns of morbidity and mortality from causes related primarily to infectious and communicable diseases to causes associated with chronic, degenerative diseases
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Epidemiological transition
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a shift from high birth rates and death rates found in agrarian societies to much lower birth and death rates in developed countries.
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Demographic transition
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To diagnose the health of the community and the condition of the people, to measure the true dimensions and distribution of ill-health in terms of incidence, prevalence, disability and mortality
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Community health use
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To study the working of health services with a view to their improvement
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Health services use
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a type of study of the placement of health services in a community and the optimum utilization of such services
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operations research
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Refers to a method of reducing healthcare costs by providing integrated care for chronic conditions.
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Disease management
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To estimate from the group experience what are the individual risks on average of disease, accident and defect, and the chances of avoiding them
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Risk assessment use
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The probability that an event will occur
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Risk
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an exposure that is associated with a disease, morbidity, mortality, or adverse health outcome.
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Risk factor
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a methodology used to provide quantitative measurements of risk to health.
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Risk assessment
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To search for causes of health and disease by computing the experience of groups defined by their composition, inheritance and experience, their behaviour [sic] and environments." (one of the most important uses of epidemiology)
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Disease Causality use
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norms for conduct that distinguish between ... acceptable and unacceptable behavior."
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Ethics
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-Promotes the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error -Promotes values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness -Helps to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public -Helps build public support for research -Promotes a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety
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Ethics in research
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Developed by ACE -Minimizing risks and protecting the welfare of research subjects -Obtaining the informed consent of participants -Submitting proposed studies for ethical review -Maintaining public trust [Meeting] obligations to communities
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Ethcs Guidelines
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the review of data for accuracy and completeness
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Data cleaning
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how true your results are
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Validity
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Used to summarize key aspects of the data set Types of graphs: -Bar chart -Line graph -Pie chart
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Graphical presentation
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shows the frequency of cases for categories of a categorical variable such as a yes/no variable
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Bar chart
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similar chart used for continuous variables
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Histogram
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discrete: clear separation between the two
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Categorical variable
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A variable that could have an infinite number of values along a continuum
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continuous variable
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used to display trends
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Line graph
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shows the proportion of cases according to several categories -Useful to look at relative contribution
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Pie chart
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The value obtained by dividing one quantity by another Examples are: -Rates -Proportions -Percentages -Number of students V faculty
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Ratio
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A type of ratio in which the numerator is part of the denominator
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proportion
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A proportion that has been multiplied by 100.
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Percentage
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a rate differs from a proportion because the denominator involves a measure of time.
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rate
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-the frequency of a disease or condition -associations between exposures and health outcomes -strength of the relationship between an exposure and a health outcome
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Epidemiologic measures provide the following types of information
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useful in epidemiology to characterize the occurrence of disease, morbidity, and mortality in populations.
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Quantitative terms
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Counts (a number) Incidence (number of new cases) Prevalence (number of total cases)
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Quantitative terms include
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Refers to the number of cases of a disease or other health phenomenon being studied.
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Count
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Refers to the occurrence of new disease or mortality within a defined period of observation (e.g., a week, month, year, or other time period) in a specified population.
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Incidence
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The members of the population who are capable of developing the disease or condition being studied
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Population at risk
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A rate formed by dividing the number of new cases that occur during a time period by the number of individuals in the population at risk
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Incidence rate
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The number of existing cases of a disease or health condition, or deaths in a population at some designated time. -The burden of a disease on a population -Variations: --Point prevalence (at this point in time) --Period prevalence (over a period of time) Lifetime prevalence
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Prevalence
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All cases of a disease, health condition, or deaths that exist at a particular point in time relative to a specific population from which the cases are derived
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Point prevalence
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All cases of a disease within a period of time
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Period prevalence
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Cases diagnosed at any time during the person's lifetime
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Lifetime Prevalence
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-Increase in incidence -Longer duration of the case -In-migration of cases -Prolongation of life of patients without a cure
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Factors that cause prevalence to increase
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-Decrease in incidence -Shorter duration of disease -In-migration of healthy people -Improved cure rate of disease
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Factors that cause prevalence to decrease
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-Crude rates -Specific rates -Adjusted rates
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Three categories of rates
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A type of rate that has not been modified to take account of any of the factors such as the demographic make-up of the population that may affect the observed rate
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Crude rate
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a type of crude rate. -Can be expressed in terms of any unit size of a population that is convenient. --For example, infant mortality is expressed per 1,000 live births.
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Crude death rate
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The population from which cases of a disease have been taken
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Reference population
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The number of deaths due to a disease that occur among persons who are afflicted with that disease
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Case fatality rate (CFR)
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The number of deaths within a population due to a specific disease or cause divided by the total number of deaths in the population
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Proportional mortality rate (PMR)
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Breaking a crude rate into categories -Three examples of specific rates are: --Cause-specific rates --Age-specific rates --Sex-specific rates
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Specific rates
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A measure that refers to mortality (or frequency of a given disease) divided by the population size at the midpoint of a time period times a multiplier
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Cause specific rate
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The number of cases per age group of population during a specified time period
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Age specific rate
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The frequency of a disease in a gender group divided by the total number of persons within that gender group during a time period times a multiplier
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Sex specific rate
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A rate of morbidity or mortality in a population in which statistical procedures have been applied to permit fair comparisons across populations by removing the effect of differences in the composition of various populations -fictional rates that allow for comparisons
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Adjusted rate