Home Page Flashcards 7. Causes of World War II in Europe - Flashcards

7. Causes of World War II in Europe – Flashcards

Marvel Brown

7 July 2022

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lack of national identity

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This was a weakness of Liberal Italy. Italy had only become a unified state in 1861. Since the unification had been led by Piedmont, its systems had been imposed on the rest of Italy, but regionalism was strong, especially in the south. There were also economic divisions. Most people in the south were poor peasants, whereas the north was more prosperous and industrialised.

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The Catholic Church

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This was a weakness of Liberal Italy. During the unification of Italy, most of the Papal States had been conquered by the forces of unification. The pope responded by refusing to recognize the new country and refusing to leave the Vatican. This situation angered many religious people. Until 1914, they were urged not to vote. Italian Liberals and Socialists often expressed hostile attitudes to religion and took steps to limit its power.

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Working Class Protest

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One weakness of liberal Italy was that for a long time it had been dominated by the middle and upper classes. The vote was only extended to working class men over 30 in 1912 and to all male veterans over 21 in 1918. This domination by the upper classes led to peasant and working-class unrest. Among other things, these classes tended to oppose parties that advocated war.

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The PSI

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This was the Italian Socialist Party, founded in 1882. Mussolini belonged to this party until he was expelled form it for supporting the First World War. In 1919, this party won 32% of the vote, making it the largest party. In 1924 its leader was assassinated by fascists and in 1925 it was banned along with all the other political parties.

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The PPI

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This was a Catholic political party founded by a Catholic priest in 1919 in order to oppose the Italian Socialist party. It advocated social reforms such as women's suffrage and the creation of a welfare state. It received 20.5 % of the vote in 1919 and 10.4% in 1921, making it the second largest party in the Italian Parliament. It split in 1924 into pro and anti-fascist factions. The anti-fascist branch dissolved in 1926.

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Nationalist opposition

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This was a weakness of Liberal Italy. Various groups constantly agitated for a more aggressive foreign policy aimed at "reclaiming" the "unredeemed lands" and acquiring colonies in order to become a great power.

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terre irrendente

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This term refers to the "unredeemed lands" which Italian nationalists believed should be part of Italy. These included: - Corsica, Nice and Savoy (all in France); - Italian Switzerland - South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, Dalmatia and Fiume (All in Austria-Hungary until 1918, split between Italy and Yugoslavia after that) - The Ionian Islands (Greece) - Malta (British)

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Adowa

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In this battle in 1896, the Italians were defeated by an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) army when they attempted to conquer Abyssiania/Ethiopia. This was particularly humiliating because, as Europeans fighting Africans, they had been expected to win easily. his was one reason Mussolini was so keen to take Abyssinia in 1934-6.

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Fiume

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This was a largely Italian-speaking near Istria. It had not been mentioned in the Treaty of London, but many Italians had expected to receive it in the post-war settlement. There was widespread anger in Italy when they did not receive it. In 1919, D'Annunzio led 2000 ex-soldiers to seize the town. He refused to give it up, declaring it to be an independent state. Eventually he withdrew after bombardment from the Italian navy in 1920. The town was then an independent state until 1924 (briefly occupied by Italian fascists in 1922). In 1924, Yugoslavia agreed to let Italy take it over. After World War II it was returned to Yugoslavia. It is now called Rijeka, and is part of Croatia.

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Treaty of London

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This was a treaty signed in 1915 bringing Italy into World War I. In return, Italy was promised Trentino, South Tyrol, Trieste, Gorizia and Istria. It was implied that they would receive part of Dalmatia. There were less specific promises of rights "in case of a partition of Turkey" and a share in the war indemnity "corresponding to the magnitude of her sacrifices and efforts." In the event, Italy did not receive Dalmatia, the port of Fiume or colonies in the final peace settlement, causing her to feel cheated.

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fasci di azione rivoluzionaria

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These were "revolutionary action groups" that were set up in October 1914 by Mussoloini and other socialists who supported the Italian entry into World War I. They were forerunners of the Fascist Party

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Mussolini

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(1883-1945) This man began as a member of the Italian Socialist Party, but was expelled for supporting Italy's entry into World War I. He founded the Fascist Party in 1919. In 1922, he was appointed Prime Minister of Italy. By the end of 1924 he had assumed dictatorial powers. His aggressive foreign policy helped to undermine the League of Nations in the 1920sand 30's, especially his invasion of Abyssinia in 1935-6. He allied with Nazi Germany in 1938. In 1940, he brought Italy into World War II by attacking France. When the allies invaded Italy in 1943, he was dismissed and arrested. He was rescued by German special forces and established as ruler of a puppet regime in northern Italy. In April 1945 he was captured by partisans and executed.

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Caporetto

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At this battle in October 1917, Italy suffered a disastrous defeat when they were driven back 100 km by a combined Austro-Hungarian and German force, suffering heavy losses. This increased the Italian sense of having made major sacrifices in the war, and therefore being deserving of generous treatment in the peace. It also may have led the other powers to belittle Italy's achievements in the war.

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Vittorio Veneto

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This 1918 battle was a decisive victory for Italy over Austria-Hungary, about the only one she achieved during the First World War. This made nationalists proud and led Italians to expect generous treatment in the peace settlement.

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fascism

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This was a political philosophy founded by Mussolini in 1919. Its ideology wasn't particularly clear, but in general it promoted nationalism, government by one party with a strong leader or dictator, militarism, authoritarianism, national unity and imperialism. It opposed communism, internationalism, pacifism and multi-party democracy.

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fasci di combattimento

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A group set up by Mussolini after World War I. It comprised mainly disgruntled unemployed war veterans who were angry about their circumstances and the perceived weakness of the Italian government which had not gained much territory in the Paris peace settlement.

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Elections of 1919

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For the first time in Italy, all male veterans between the ages of 21-29 could vote, meaning most adult men could now vote. The liberals gained fewer than half the seats in the Italian parliament, and no party had a majority. It proved impossible to form a stable coalition government, so Italy experienced a series of short-term governments which undermined confidence in democracy and paved the way for Mussolini's dictatorship.

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Dalmatia

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The treaty of London suggested that this territory on the coast of the Adriatic, or parts of it, might be given to Italy after the war. At the peace conference, the Italian Prime Minister was willing to trade Italy's claim to this territory in exchange for the port of Fiume. His foreign minister disagreed. As a result of their lack of unity, Italy got neither territory, angering nationalists and reducing their confidence in the liberal government.

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D'Annunzio

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This poet, playwright, journalist and World War I soldier led 2000 ex-soldiers to occupy the city of Fiume from 1919-20. He was eventually forced out by the Italian navy, but the Fascists would copy his example in 1922. He was a strong influence on Mussolini, although he was never actively involved in Mussolini's movement. When he died in 1938, he was given a state funeral.

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inflation

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This was a problem in Italy after World War I. The lira lost a lot of value. This situation hurt fixed-wage workers and the middle classes by making everything more expensive. This helped to undermine confidence in the liberal government.

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unemployment

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This was a problem in Italy after World War I. A lot of soldiers returned from war and couldn't find jobs. there were two million people without jobs by the end of 1919. This helped to undermine confidence in the liberal government.

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Bolshevik Revolution

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This successful communist uprising in Russia in November 1917 increased the fear of a communist takeover all over Europe. In Italy, some socialists tried to organize an Italian revolution. Fear of this helped to cause anti-communists to support Mussolini.

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Biennio Rosso

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This refers to the years 1919-1920, the "Two Red Years". During this time, Italian socialists tried to start a communist revolution. Fear of this helped to cause anti-communists to support Mussolini.

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blackshirts

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This was the name given to the military wing of Mussolini's fascist party. The name refers to their uniforms. They helped give an appearance of strength. They also beat up and even killed Mussolini's opponents. In 1922, they threatened to March on Rome.

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General Strike

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This was called organized by Italian socialists and communists in August 1922 to protest at the political violence of the fascists. This backfired. Armed gangs of fascists took over the running of essential services, improving their reputation. This action by the socialists only reinforced many Italians' impression that their country needed strong leadership.

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March on Rome

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In October 1922, Mussolini and the Fascists threatened to seize power unless Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister. This is the name given to their coup. The plan was for 50,000 Fascists to participate. In the event, only 10,000 showed up. On the night of the 27 of October they began to assemble about 20 miles from Rome. Prime Minister Facta tried to get the King to declare martial law and use the army to crush the revolt. Instead, the king decided to use the Fascists. He sent for Mussolini and appointed him Prime Minister. Only after that did the police allow Mussolini's fascists into Rome. In order to make everything sound more dramatic, Mussolini cultivated the myth that they had seized power instead of being handed it without a shot being fired.

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Acerbo Law

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A law passed in Italy in 1923 which dictated that whichever party won the most votes in an election would get two thirds of the seats in parliament. There were armed fascists in the chamber when parliament voted to pass it. Only the PPI voted against it. This woud have made it easy for Mussolini to gain dictatorial powers. In the event, he won 60% of the vote in the 1924 elections without the help of the law (although this was achieved by blatant intimidation of voters and opponents.)

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Giacomo Matteotti

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This was the leader of the United Socialist Party in 1924. He was a moderate socialist, trying to balance socialism with liberalism, roughly equivalent to today's Social Democrats. In May, 1924 he gave a speech in the Italian parliament condemning Fascist violence. He was murdered by Fascists 11 days later. This demonstrated the ruthless tactics Mussolini used to eliminate opposition.

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OVRA

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The secret police in Fascist Italy from 1928.

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Factors preventing Mussolini from having totalitarian control of Italy

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The king could still dismiss Mussolini and the Catholic Church retained a lot of influence. The church and the old landowning elite were especially powerful in the south.

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Main aims of Mussolini's foreign policy

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These were to increase national pride, consolidate domestic support for his regime, revise the post-war settlement of 1919-20, dominate the Balkans, dominate the Mediterranean, build an Empire, and foster the spread of Fascism in other countries.

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autarky

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Economic self-sufficiency. Both Hitler and Mussolini attempted to make their countries less dependent on imports. Neither fully succeeded.

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corporate state

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A new way of organizing the economy that was advocated by Mussolini. It involved heavy government regulation of privately owned corporations to ensure decent working conditions for workers and to ensure that businesses focused on national economic priorities. With government supervision and mediation it was hoped that businessmen and workers would cooperate for the good of the country.

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Battle for Grain

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This was a campaign launched by Mussolini in 1925 that aimed at making Italy self-sufficient in wheat production. This was achieved by raising tariffs on imported wheat, by giving grants to farmers to guy machinery and fertilizer and by expanding farming to previously unfarmed land. This succeeded in making Italy more or less self-sufficient in grain by 1940, but it also made the cost of wheat much higher than it needed to be (which meant food prices were higher), protected inefficient farmers, reduced agricultural production in other areas such as animal husbandry and vineyards, and encouraged farmers to try to grow wheat on unsuitable land.

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Battle for Lira

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Campaign launched by Mussolini in 1926 that aimed at strengthening Italy's currency, which had dropped from 90 per GBP in 1922 to 150 per GBP in 1926. In this campaign, the currency was artificially fixed at 90 per GBP. Workers' wages were cut by 10% to reflect the stronger currency. Mussolini hoped this would stop inflation, improve Italy's prestige, give the impression that the Fascists were bringing stability. He succeeded in making imports cheaper, which was good for the industries that relied on imported raw materials. However, in order to achieve self-sufficiency, Mussolini kept tariffs on grain and consumer goods high, so food prices remained high while worker's wages were cut, causing a decline in workers' living standards.

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Mussolini Law

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A 1928 law that launched a land reclamation campaign aimed at draining marshy areas to create farmland and reduce malaria. The law also planned to reform agrarian lease contracts in the hope improving the situation of Italy's peasants. The programme succeeded in draining some marshes, especially the Pontine Marshes near Rome. This eliminated the threat of malaria in the capital, and allowed for the foundation of new towns and villages as well as the Cicero National Park. However, funding for the programme wasn't adequate to do much more than this, particularly in the 1930s when funds were diverted to the Abyssinia campaign. Also, large landowners were opposed to land reform or changes to the rental agreements.

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Corfu

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In 1923, after an Italian official was killed on the Greek border with Albania, Mussolini invaded this Greek island in defiance of the League of Nations. Eventually, he agreed to withdraw when the British Navy threatened to attack him, but he demanded 50 million lire in compensation. The success of this venture encouraged further aggression against weaker countries, although Mussolini was more careful against Britain. It also set a precedent for Italy to ignore the League of Nations.

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Ahmed Zog

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In 1924 Mussolini helped this man to take power as King of Albania. He then agreed to a 1926 treaty making Albania an Italian protectorate. This helped to advance Italy's ambition to dominate the Balkans.

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Locarno

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This was a group of treaties negotiated between Germany, Belgium, Britain, Italy and France in 1925. They confirmed Germany's borders with France and Belgium and asserted that Germany's eastern land claims would be settled by peaceful means. These agreements paved the way for Germany to join the League of Nations. Mussolini did not succeed in getting the Italian border with Austria included in these discussions, but he participated actively and raised his prestige.

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Examples of Mussolini cooperating with the League in his foreign policy.

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Locarno (1925), Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), The Treaty of Friendship with Abyssinia

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Examples of Mussolini acting aggressively in his foreign policy.

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Corfu (1923), Fiume (1924), Albania (1926) and the crushing of the Libyan Revolt (1922-28)

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Stab in the Back Myth

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This was a version of history popular among right wing Germans during this period. It was encouraged by the army officers. According to this version of events, the German army had been winning the war until they were let down by civilian politicians who failed to support the army and signed the armistice behind the army's back. In fact, the army was losing ground fast in November 1918 and the officers knew it. They had deliberately set up the civilian government to make peace with the allies. Unfortunately, many people preferred to believe the myth rather than the facts and this made them less likely to support the Weimar government.

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German Workers' Party (DAP)

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This was a political party in Germany founded in 1919 by Anton Drexler. Hitler was sent by the army to investigate it in 1920 and he ended up joining it. In 1920 it would be renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) or "Nazi" Party. Hitler became the leader in 1921. In 1920 its programme included: -Denying German citizenship to Jews • Acquiring "living space" in Eastern Europe • Abolition of lending money for interest • Confiscation of businesses of war profiteers • Abolition of department stores to protect small businesses As the party became popular in the 1930s, the economic parts of the programme were quietly dropped.

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SA (Stormtroopers) (aka "Brown Shirts")

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This was a Nazi army founded in 1921. Many of its members were ex-soldiers and Freikorps. During the 1920s and early 1930s its members disrupted Communist meetings, defended Nazi meetings, fought against communists in the streets and gave an impression of a powerful party by appearing in uniform. This convinced some people to support the Nazis because they could fight the communists and it convinced others not to oppose the Nazis for fear of being beaten up or even killed. By 1932, there would be about 400,000 men in this organization. (There were only 100,000 men in the German army.) This probably influenced Hindenburg to allow Hitler to be Chancellor for fear that he might start a civil war. By 1933, they were led by Ernst Rohm, who was a homosexual and also a believer in the original left wing policies of the party. He hoped to be put in charge of the German army. In 1934, Hitler would kill him and other leaders of this group to appease the army and his right-wing supporters on the "Night of the Long Knives".

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Social Darwinism

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The application of Darwin's findings about natural selection and the "survival of the fittest" to human society. Proponents of this school of thought considered different human races and ethnic groups to be analagous to different species competing for survival. They tended to characterise some as superior, and therefore more deserving of life than others. They reasoned that just as it was natural for better adapted animal species to drive poorly adapted ones to extinction, it was natural for human races to compete for resources. Proponents of this way of thinking also advocated selective breeding (eugenics) to eliminate undesirable genetic traits and propagate desirable ones.

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Mein Kampf

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This was Hitler's autobiography. He wrote it while in prison in 1924. It was published in 1925 and became a best-seller because Hitler was so famous. The title literally means "My Struggle". A lot of the things Hitler would eventually do are mentioned in the book, like getting rid of the German Jews and conquering "living space" in the East, but one must remember that there is a difference between writing a book about what should be done in the unlikely event that one gets power and what is actually put into practice. Many readers may not have taken Hitler seriously.

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Aryans

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To scholars, this term refers to Indo-Iranian peoples. To the Nazis, it meant non-Jewish, non-Gypsy Western Europeans. Within this group, the "best" sub-group were the "Nordic" type - the blond and blue-eyed people, but all in this group were considered full German citizens (or potential German citizens). For instance, Hitler considered Shakespeare to be one of the great German poets.

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Lebensraum

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This means "Living Space" in German. It refers to the policy of the Nazi Party that Germany should conquer an empire in Eastern Europe. This helped to motivate Hitler to start World War II.

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anti-Semitism

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This term refers to prejudice against Jews. This was very common in Europe and North America before the Second World War. It was a major part of Nazi party policy, because the Jews made convenient scapegoats for Germany's problems. The Nazis were not the only anti-Semitic party in Germany at the time, and it is unclear how much this policy helped in their rise to power. Economic issues seem to have been more important to most voters.

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untermenschen

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This means "sub humans" in German. Hitler used this term to describe Jews, Gypsies and Slavic people. In Nazi Germany these groups had no rights. They were to be expelled, enslaved or exterminated.

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Third Reich

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This was the term used by Hitler to describe the 1000-year empire he intended to create. In fact, it lasted from c.1933-1945. He believed it was the third German empire, the first being the Holy Roman Empire and the second being the empire of 1871-1918.

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Gross Deutschland

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This was the idea of bringing all the German-speaking people into one country by uniting Germany and Austria and adding German minorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Luxembourg, Belgium Danzig, and France. Some proponents of this also wanted to incorporate German Switzerland. This had been a policy of German nationalists since the 19th century. It was also a key part of Hitler's foreign policy.

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Freikorps

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These were militias made up of ex-soldiers. They were not officially part of the army, which meant the government had no control over them, but the army and government used them to help combat left-wing opposition like the Spartacist uprising on January 1919. They also helped crush Communist movements in Bavaria and other provinces. They were more brutal than regular army soldiers could get away with being. However, they were themselves a threat to the government as they would prove in March 1920, when thousands of them marched on Berlin intending to bring down the government. The army refused to stop them. they were eventually stopped by a general strike.

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Spartacist Revolt

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This happened in Berlin in January 1919. A radical left-wing party tried to stage a communist revolution. They were crushed by the army and the Freikorps. The leaders were captured and murdered without trial. The significance of this event is that it demonstrates that the new democratic government of Germany was under threat from both sides and also that the government was very dependent on the army and the Freikorps, neither of which was very supportive of the government. It also demonstrates how little control the government had over the army and the Freikorps.

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Kapp Putsch

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March 1920. This was a right wing revolt by Wolfgang Kapp supported by Freikorps. Their aim was to overthrow the Weimar government. The army refused to suppress the uprising, because so many of the rebels were demobilized soldiers. The government had to flee and Kapp took over Berlin. Kapp was eventually overthrown by a general strike led by socialists in Berlin. The government took no action against the army or against most of the 12000 Freikorps who had taken part. Kapp himself died before he could be prosecuted. 412 people were granted amnesty, 294 people were prosecuted. 285 of the prosecutions were dropped. Seven of the convictions were overturned on review and one person was punished.

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Ruhr Crisis

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(January-November 1923) France and Belgium did this because Germany fell behind on the reparations payments. The workers in the factories in the Ruhr went on strike. The government printed extra money in order to pay them their wages so they could live without working. This, combined with economic problems left over from the war caused hyperinflation. In November, Stresemann came to power in Germany. He promised to pay the reparations to France and Belgium in smaller installments with the help of American loans and he managed to bring inflation under control.

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Hyperinflation

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This refers to the financial crisis during the French and Belgian Occupation of the Ruhr (January-November 1923). The government had already been printing money to pay Germany's war debts. During this period, they started printing much more money to pay striking workers who were refusing to work for the French and Belgians. German money lost so much value that it became worthless. Prices rose so high that people had to spend their lives' savings just to buy food. This made Germans lose confidence in the government. (especially when the government took this opportunity to pay back its debts in worthless money). Stresemann eventually negotiated and end to the crisis and issued a new currency. NOTE; This is NOT to be confused with the Depression of 1929-32.

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Hitler's Trial

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This occurred in 1924, a few months after the Beer Hall Putsch. This made Hitler a household name because he spoke eloquently in his own defense. For trying to overthrow the government and for being an accessory to the killing of three police officers, Hitler was sentenced to five years in a very pleasant prison where he could receive visitors. He actually served nine months.

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Munich Putsch (AKA Beer Hall Putsch)

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November 1923: The Nazis were angry that the government had given in to the French and Belgians, so they tried to take over the government of Bavaria. 16 Nazis and three policemen were killed. Their attempt was unsuccessful. Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison, but served only nine months. This failed attempt convinced Hitler that he had to take power legally. The fact that his sentence was so lenient demonstrates how little support the Weimar Republic received from the Weimar Republic's conservative judiciary (left over from the Kaiser's time). Finally, Hitler's trial called attention to his cause, and he used it to become nationally known.

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Stresemann

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Chancellor of the Weimar Republic from August-November 1923 and then Foreign Minister from 1923-29. He negotiated the end of the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr and the Hyperinflation crisis the Dawes Plan, the Locarno Treaty and the Young Plan. Oddly, his foreign policy was not very different from Hitler's although his methods were very different. He wanted to end reparations, protect German speakers outside Germany's borders and reclaim Posen, West Prussia and Danzig.

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Dawes Plan

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This was negotiated by Stresemann (First as Chancellor, then as Foreign Minister) in 1924. The USA loaned Germany 800 million marks and the reparations payments were spread out over a longer period of time in smaller installments. This helped the German economy to recover. In fact, Germany received more in US loans than they ever paid out in reparations. However, it also made the German economy very dependent on the US economy, which meant that it was badly hit by the Great Depression of 1929-32.

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Young Plan

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This was a new plan for Germany's payment of reparations. Stresemann negotiated it shortly before his death in 1929. It reduced the total amount of reparations Germany would have to pay by three quarters and spread the payments out over a longer period of time (until 1988). This was resented by many in Germany who believed Germany shouldn't pay reparations at all, but it was quite an achievement to negotiate it. In the end the Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression led to reparations payments being suspended indefinitely, and they were never paid.

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Locarno

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A group of treaties negotiated between Germany and Britain, France and Italy in 1925. Stresemann was the German foreign minister at the time. These treaties confirmed Germany's boundaries with Belgium and France, guaranteeing that Germany would not try to take back Eupen-Malmedy or Alsace-Lorraine. They did NOT agree an Germany's eastern boundaries with Poland, Lithuania and Czechoslovakia, but Germany affirmed that these would be settled by negotiation, not war. These treaties normalized Germany's foreign relations after World War I.

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Kellogg-Briand Pact

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This was initiated by the American Secretary of State and the French Foreign Minister in 1928. It was an agreement to renounce war as an instrument of international policy. Of the 64 states invited to sign it, only Brazil and Argentina declined. Germany, Italy Japan and the USSR all signed it.

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Rapallo Treaty

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This was a treaty between Germany and the USSR formed in 1922, at a time when both countries were international pariahs. It provided for economic and military cooperation. Germany gave the USSR much-needed technical expertise and equipment, and the USSR let Germany design and train with forbidden weapons such as tanks on its soil. Although the exact terms of the treaty weren't known, its existence made Britain more willing to compromise with Germany for fear of driving Germany into a closer relationship with the USSR.

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Wall Street Crash

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This happened in October 1929 in the USA. Everyone who has invested money n the US stock market lost money. This caused several banks to fail. It meant that there was no money being invested, which led to workers losing their jobs. Germany was affected because the loans they had been getting from the USA under the Dawes and Young Plans dried up. Also, the USA and other countries stopped importing goods from Germany.

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Elite Nazi men's organization (Only open to radical Nazis who could prove racially pure ancestry back four generations). This organization began as Hitler's bodyguard but during the period of the Third Reich they controlled the secret police and the concentration camps. They also had their own military units that fought alongside the regular army. They were in charge of the "final solution" (The plan to eliminate all Jewish people under German rule between late 1941 and 1945.)

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1930 Reichstag Election

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This turned the Nazis from a tiny party among many parties to a major player. They won 18.3% of the vote, increasing their share of the seats in the Reichstag from 12 to 107. At the same time, the Communists won 13.1% of the vote. This increased support for the communists worried a lot of people, some of whom would later turn to the Nazis. All of this meant the democratic parties won fewer seats, making it even more difficult to form a stable coalition in the Reichstag.

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1932 Presidential Election

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In this contest, Hitler ran against Hindenburg. He lost, but he gained a respectable amount of support and became very well known in Germany.

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1932 July Reichstag Election

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In this contest, the Nazis won 37.4% of the vote, making them the largest party in the Reichstag, although it should be noted that they still did not have a majority. This put pressure on President Hindenburg to make Hitler Chancellor (Prime Minister). At the same time, the Communists won 14.5% of the vote, increasing the fear of a Communist revolution. At this point, the majority of delegates in the Reichstag were from parties that wanted to get rid of democracy, making it impossible for moderate parties to form a coalition.

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Hitler's appointment as Chancellor

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This happened in January 1933. Although this was a powerful position in theory, in fact he was the 15th person to hold this position since 1919, which means the average person held this position for less than a year. There were only two other Nazis in his cabinet, he did not command a majority in the Reichstag, and he could have been dismissed by the President at any time.

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Reichstag Fire

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This happened on Feb 27, 1933. It was set by a Dutch Communist, although there is some evidence to suggest that he was helped or encouraged by Nazis. Hitler got Hindenburg to declare a state of emergency. This remained in place until 1945.

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Emergency Decrees

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Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to issue these after the Reichstag Fire of February 27, 1933. They gave Hitler the power to have the police put people in "protective custody" indefinitely without charge and suspended civil rights. Hitler used these to suppress the Communists and other opponents.

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1933 Reichstag Election

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In this contest, the Nazis won 44% of the vote. They were still the largest party, but they didn't have a majority. The Communists got 12.3%. Most communists had been imprisoned or at least prevented from campaigning by emergency decrees, so they were not allowed In their absence, Hitler was able to make an alliance with other right wing parties to control the Reichstag.

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Enabling Act

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Passed March 24, 1933 (aka "law for terminating the suffering of the people and the nation") This gave Hitler the power to make laws without consulting the Reichstag. Effectively, it gave him dictatorial powers. Hitler made a deal with the Catholic Centre party to get them to support this. In return, he promised not to interfere with the Catholic Church, Catholic schools and Catholic youth groups. The Communists were already banned. Only the SPD voted against it.

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Law Against the Formation of New Parties

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This was part of Hitler's consolidation of power 1933-34. Hitler convinced the various right-wing parties to join the Nazis. He convinced the Catholic Centre party to disband by promising to protect the rights of the Catholic Church. He banned the KPD and the SPD. He then passed this law. From this point until 1945, Germany was a single- party state.

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The Night of the Long Knives

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This was part of Hitler's consolidation of power. On the night of June 29-30, 1934 the SS broke into the homes of Röhm and other opponents and potential opponents, arrested them and executed them. Estimates of numbers of victims vary. Your text suggests between 150 and 200. Most historians now think it was closer to 90, including 50 SA leaders. They were accused of plotting a coup. In fact, Röhm's flamboyant homosexuality was an embarrassment, and he and other SA leaders believed too strongly in the socialist aspects of the party policy, which Hitler was quietly dropping. This purge allowed Hitler to blame the previous excesses of the Nazis on Röhm and won him the support of the army and many "respectable" Germans. He also got rid of several other opponents while he was at it.

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Army Oath of Allegiance

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On the day of Hindenburg's death, the whole army swore allegiance to Hitler personally. From this point until 1945, Hitler's rule of Germany was secure.

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Concentration Camps

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These were originally prison camps in Nazi Germany set up for "Aryan" criminals and opponents of the Nazis - communists, socialists, drunks, homosexuals, "work-shy", people caught making anti-Nazi jokes, as well as more conventional criminals. Under the Emergency Decrees passed after the Reichstag Fire, the Nazis could basically put anyone in "preventative detention". Although the first such camps were intended to punish, not kill, many did die from ill treatment, commit suicide, or get shot or tortured to death. It was not until the war began that Jews began to be sent to these camps in large numbers, and not until the middle of the war were some camps set up for the purpose of exterminating undesirable groups.

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Nuremberg Laws

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These were passed in September 1935. In the "Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour" marriages and sexual relations between Jews and Aryans were banned. The Reich Citizenship Law deprived Jews of German citizenship. This opened the way to discriminate against Jews in every aspect of life just by restricting things to citizens only.

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Zweites Buch

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This was Hitler's second book, written in 1928 and then kept at Nazi headquarters with the intention that it should not be published until after Hitler's death. It was discovered by the Americans after the war and published in 1958. It developed the foreign policy comments in Mein Kampf. Hitler stressed the need for Lebensraum in the East, predicted that Britain would not oppose Germany's conquest of Eastern territory, and furthermore predicted a final confrontation between a German dominated Europe (with Britain in alliance with Germany) and the USA. Some historians see this book as evidence that Hitler had a master plan. Others take it less seriously.

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Structuralist View of Hitler's Foreign Policy

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This school of thought suggests that Hitler did not have a master plan for his foreign policy. Instead he just took advantage of opportunities to strengthen Germany as they arose. These historians argue that Mein Kampf and Zweites Buch were daydreams and did not constitute serious policy plans. They also point out that Hitler did not follow the plans laid out in those books all that closely, for instance, when he made the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Historians supporting this school of thought tend to be critical of the policy of appeasement, arguing that it gave Hitler opportunities to strengthen Germany and encouraged him to take more and more risks. AJP Taylor and Alan Bullock are examples of this type of historian.

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Intentionalist View of Hitler's Foreign Policy

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This school of thought suggests that Hitler had a master plan for his foreign policy which he pursued step-by-step, and which he knew would culminate in a major war. Important evidence for this viewpoint comes from various statements by Hitler himself, Mein Kampf, Zweites Buch, the Hossbach Memorandum and the Four Year Plan. Historians supporting this school of thought are sometimes sympathetic to the policy of appeasement, arguing that the war was inevitable in any case, and the policy gave Britain and France time to prepare. Examples of these historians include Klaus Hildebrand, Hugh Trevor-Roper, R.J. Sontag and J. Fest.

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Globalist Historians

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These are a group of intentionalist historians who argue that Hitler had a plan for world domination, not merely domination of Europe. Hildebrand and Hauner subscribe to this view.

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Assassinations

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There were 376 of these between 1919 and 1922. 354 were carried out by right-wing extremists. 326 went unpunished. This shows how unstable the situation in Germany was in the early 1920s and also how sympathetic judges were to right-wing extremism.

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Effects of the Great Depression on Germany

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• There were no more loans coming from the USA, leaving Germany critically short of capital. • Unemployment rose until 6 million people were unemployed by 1932. • Chancellor Bruning followed deflationary policies, cutting government spending and unemployment benefits, which made the problem worse. • Agricultural prices were low, which hurt small farmers. • Industrial production dropped over 50%. • Politics became more polarized, as many Germans turned to extreme parties like the Communists and the Nazis.

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Effects of the Great Depression on Italy

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Effects: - They had overvalued the lira in the "Battle for the Lira" which meant their exports were already overpriced. This made the effects of the shut down of international trade worse. o Italian farmers were hurt by collapsing grain prices. o Investment from USA was withdrawn. o Industry declined and unemployment rose to 2 million Response: • The government bailed out banks and industries with public money • The government assumed increased control of banks and industries. By the end of the 1930s Italy had the largest public sector outside the USSR. • Wages were cut. • Public works programmes were introduced. • Emigration was permitted. • The government tried to distract people with an aggressive foreign policy.

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Count Ciano

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Mussolini's son-in-law who was in charge of Italy's foreign policy from 1936 onward. He initially supported closer links with German, but later became disillusioned with Hitler and argued against the Pact of Steep of 1939. He supported the invasion of Albania with the goal of creating a buffer against Germany. He lost favour with Mussolini for his anti-German stance in 1940, but relented and supported Italy's entry into the war in June 1940.

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Four Power Pact

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A 1933 treaty between Italy, France, Britain and Germany, which Mussolini hoped would be an alternative to the League of Nations for European diplomacy. It was signed in Rome. The signatories agreed that smaller nations were not entitled to as much say in Great Power relations as they were. They also agreed to adhere to the League Covenant, the Locarno treaties and the Kellogg-Briand Pact. The treaty enhanced Mussolini's reputation, but had little significance otherwise.

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Dolfuss

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This was the chancellor of Austria. He was murdered by Austrian Nazis on July 25, 1934. Germany appeared to be preparing to use this as an excuse to take over Austria and bring about the Anschluss.

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Annexation of most of the remainder of Czechoslovakia (Bohemia and Moravia)

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This happened in March of 1939. Hitler did not consult Mussolini in advance. Since all of the country's border defenses had gone with the Sudetenland, these provinces were defenseless. Furthermore, Hitler ensured they would have no allies by promising land to Hungary and Poland, and promising independence to the Slovaks. This proved that Hitler had no intention of stopping his expansionist policy, and he could no longer pretend he was merely uniting German-speaking people. After this, Britain and France gave Poland a guarantee that they would go to war to protect Polish independence.

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Little Entente

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This was an alliance between Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia, originally formed in the 1920s to guard against Hungarian aggression. France had treaties with each member country, aimed at containing German aggression. There were many strains on these alliances in the 1930s. In 1938 the countries agreed to Hungarian rearmament. These ties collapsed completely after the Munich Agreement.

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Lausanne Conference

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This was a conference between Britain, France and Germany in 1932 to discuss reparations. Reparations payments had been suspended the previous year because of the financial crisis. At this conference, the countries agreed to cancel the remaining reparations payments provided the USA agreed to forgive Britain and France's World War I debt. In the end, the US Congress did not agree to forgive the debt, so in theory Germany should have resumed paying reparations, but the system had collapsed by then, and Hitler came to power in January 1933 and refused to pay more. Germany had paid only about one eighth of the reparations demanded by the Treaty of Versailles. (In 2010 Germany paid off all the reparations demanded by the Young Plan of 1929.)

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Geneva Disarmament Conference

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This conference was planned by the League's disarmament commission, which had spent the previous five years producing a report containing no details or statistics. It began in 1932. In 1933, Hitler demanded that all countries in the League disarm to the same level as Germany. When they refused, he walked out, pulled Germany out of the League and began rearming, at first in secret and then openly. The conference adjourned indefinitely in 1934.

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Non-Aggression Pact with Poland

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Hitler negotiated this in 1934. It guaranteed peace between Germany and this country for ten years. This helped to secure Germany's eastern border and undermine this country's alliance with France. It also helped to convince other countries that Hitler's intentions were peaceful.

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Saar Plebiscite

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This was an important coal mining area o the border of France and Germany. Under the Treaty of Versailles, it was given to France for 15 years. At the end of the 15 years, a vote was to be held so the inhabitants could decide if they wanted to be part of France or part of Germany. They voted to return to Germany. This was an important propaganda victory for Hitler.

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Germany Reintroduces Conscription

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Hitler had begin rearming in secret as soon as he took power in 1933, even though it violated the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935 he publicly announced that he was rearming and introduced this program, which was a direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles' restrictions on the size of the German armed forces. Britain and France did nothing. In fact, Britain negotiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, effectively approving Hitler's move. This represents the beginning of the policy of appeasement.

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Luftwaffe

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This was the name of the German air force. In March 1935 Goring revealed that Germany had 2,500 'planes. This was a direct violation of the treaty of Versailles, which did not allow Germany to have an air force. Hitler argued that this was justified because Britain and France had not disarmed and Germany needed to be able to defend itself against the USSR. Britain and France did not take any action.

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Joachim von Ribbentrop

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This man started off as Hitler's foreign policy advisor. In 1935, he negotiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. In August, 1936, he was appointed ambassador to Britain. He failed to make an alliance with Britain, partly because he behaved arrogantly. He reacted by turning against Britain, arguing that Britain was weak. He was Germany's foreign minister from 1938-45.

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Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty

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This was signed in 1935, the same year the USSR joined the League and only two months after Hitler announced German rearmament. Poland had signed a non-aggression pact with Germany the year before. This treaty aimed at containing Germany. It committed both countries to come to each other's aid in the event of unprovoked aggression (provided the League and the UK, Italy and Belgium agreed that the aggression was unprovoked). Italy and the UK did not participate, being unwilling to ally with a communist country and also worrying that encircling Germany might provoke her aggression. Hitler used the threat posed by this treaty as an excuse to remilitarize the Rhineland.

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Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

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This occurred in 1936, in the middle of the Abyssinia Crisis. Using the excuse that France and the USSR had made a pact, Hitler sent 10,000 troops and 23,000 armed police into the demilitarized zone which stretched form the French border to a line 50 km east of the Rhine. We now know that he would have pulled them out at the first sign of a French military response, but there was one. Anti-appeasement historians point to this episode as a point when Hitler could easily have been stopped. Hitler offered to pull his troops out of this territory if the French would demilitarize a zone of equal size on their side of the border, but the French would not do this because of the Maginot Line, among other things.

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Four Year Plan

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A Nazi program launched in 1936, under the direction of Goering, aimed at preparing the German economy for war by rearming and pursuing autarky (self-sufficiency).

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Hossbach Memorandum

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This is a summary of a meeting between Hitler and military leaders held in Hitler's office on November 5, 1937. Hitler stated that Germany's key aim must be to preserve and enlarge the German "racial community". Hitler stated that he expected a war by 1943-45 at the latest, and that after that point the situation would not be as favourable to Germany as other countries would be in a comparatively stronger position. The meeting discussed possible problems in France that might make her less of a threat and also mentioned the need to take Austria and Czechoslovakia. Many historians see this document as evidence that Hitler had a plan for war. On the other hand, others point out that he does not specifically mention war with Russia and his timeline is pretty vague. Three of the military leaders present expressed misgivings about the plan and were replaced over the next few months.

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February 1938

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In this month, Hitler appointed himself Supreme Commander of the German army. At the same time, sixteen high-ranking generals were retired and 44 others transferred. In this way, he removed all opposition to his expansionist policies from within the German army.

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Maginot Line

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This was an impregnable string of fortresses all along the Franco-German border. They were connected by underground railways and the troops were housed in state-of-the-art conditions, with air conditioning and comfortable eating areas. There were several problems with this. Firstly, it was expensive and led to other sectors of the French military being underfunded. Secondly, it meant the French were committed to a defensive strategy, which helps to explain why they didn't attack Germany when she remilitarized the Rhineland, or even when she invaded Poland. Finally, the Germans eventually simply went around these fortifications. These fortresses illustrate the problem that countries tend to prepare to fight the previous war rather than the next war.

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Schuschnigg

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This man was the chancellor of Austria in 1938. In February 1938, Hitler threatened to invade Austria unless he agreed to release all Nazi prisoners, lift the ban on the Nazi party, make the leader of the Nazi party the Minister of the Interior and give two other cabinet positions to Nazis. He also agreed to an economic union between Germany and Austria. In an effort to make it impossible for Hitler to justify taking over Austria, he organized a referendum schedule for March 13 when Austrians would vote on whether or not they wanted a "free and Germany, independent and social, Christian and united Austria". This caused Hitler to annex Austria on March 12, before the vote could be held.

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Sudetenland

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A part of the pre-WWI Austro-Hungarian province of Bohemia where 3.5 million German lived. It was placed in Czechoslovakia by the Treaty of St Germain. This made Germans the second largest ethnic group in Czechoslovakia, but the Germans resented to being allowed to join Germany or Austria. It was mountainous and rich in mineral resources. It also contained Czechoslovakia's border defences. In 1938 Hitler demanded this territory. At the Munich conference, Britain, France and Italy agreed to give it to Germany. This left Czechoslovakia defenceless.

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Heinlein

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Sudeten German leader who helped Hitler engineer a crisis in the territory so he could claim that he needed to annex it to help the "oppressed" Sudeten Germans in September 1938.

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May Crisis

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In this month, there were rumours that Germany was making military preparations on the Czechoslovakian border. Czechoslovakia mobilized its troops and Britain and France sent warnings to Hitler. He had to tell them that he had no plans to invade Czechoslovakia. Even though this was true, he hated doing it because it made it look as if he was backing down. This seems to have been what made him decide to expedite his action against Czechoslovakia. On the 28th of this month, he told his generals "It is my unalterable decision to smash Czechoslovakia by military action in the near future."

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Munich Conference

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A conference between Germany, Italy, Britain and France in 1938 in which it was agreed that Germany could annex the Sudentenland in return for Hitler's assurance that this was "the last territorial claim he would make in Europe". The Czechs and the USSR were not consulted. Many historians argue that this encouraged Hitler to start a war by convincing him that Britain and France would not fight, by strengthening Germany and by negating any chance of an alliance between Britain and France and the USSR and Czechoslovakia.

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Neville Chamberlain

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Prime Minister of Britain from 1937-1939. He was a cabinet minister before that. He is most famous for negotiating the infamous Munich Agreement with Adolf Hitler, whereby Germany was given the Sudetenland in return for Hitler's promise that they would make no further claims. It must not be forgotten that he also took steps to rearm Britain in preparation for war.

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Effects of the Munich Agreement on Czechoslovakia

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It lost 70% of its heavy industry. It lost 1/3 of its population. It lost the defensible mountainous border area and the extensive fortifications it had built there. Slovakia and Ruthenia were given autonomy over internal affairs.

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Danzig

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This German port city was placed under League of Nations control by the Treaty of Versailles so that Poland could use the port facilities. In March 1939, Hitler asked Poland to give them this territory and to allow a German-controlled road and rail link across the "Polish Corridor". Poland refused.

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Memel

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This German territory had a mixed Lithuanian-German population. It was supposed to be placed under League of Nations control by the Treaty of Versailles, but Lithuania took it over and no-one stopped them. In March, 1939 Hitler asked Lithuania to give this territory back and Lithuania complied.

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Polish Guarantee

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This was a treaty between Britain, France and Poland in March 1939 after Hitler's annexation of Bohemia and Moravia proved that he would not stop his expansionist policies. Britain and France agreed to declare war on Germany if Hitler attacked Poland. When Hitler attacked Poland in September 1939, they did indeed declare war, although they did not actually attack Germany, giving Germany (and the USSR) a free hand to take over Poland.

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Operation White

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This was the code name for the German plan to attack Poland in 1939. The significance is that he planned for a limited war against Poland only. He did not expect to face Britain and France.

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Non Aggression Pact/ Nazi-Soviet Pact/ Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

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An agreement between Germany and the USSR in 1939, which involved them dividing Poland between them and dividing Europe into "spheres of influence". Both also pledged to remain neutral if the other got involved in a war. This agreement made it possible for Hitler to invade Poland in 1939, which in turn prompted France, Britain, and most importantly Canada to declare war on Germany. It also seems to have convinced Stalin that Hitler would not attack the USSR, which resulted in his being taken by surprise in 1941.

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German invasion of Poland

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This happened on September 1, 1939. This action by Germany provoked Britain and France (and their empires) into declaring war on Germany. However, they did not actually attack Germany at this point. The USSR invaded from the other side in the middle of the month.

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Phony War

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The period between September 1939 and May 1940 in which Britain and France were at war with Germany, but no fighting was taking place (apart from a brief skirmish in Norway).

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Norway

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This country attempted to remain neutral in World War II. It was strategically important because large quantities of Swedish iron ore were shipped to Germany through its ports and territorial waters. (It also had important minerals that could potentially be used in the making of atomic bombs). Both Germany and the Western Allies planned to invade this country in April 1940. Germany acted first and gained control of the air. The Anglo-French offensive was a complete fiasco. It led to a shake-up in he British government in which Churchill replaced Chamberlain. (Which was ironic, because the campaign had been Churchill's idea.)

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Denmark

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Germany occupied this country in April 1940 as part of its campaign against Norway. It was occupied throughout the war, although the government resisted the Nazis in various ways, including evacuating most Jewish citizens to Sweden before the Nazis could round them up.

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Germany conquers the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France

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This occurred between May and June of 1940. Germany used Blitzkrieg tactics.

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Dunkirk Evacuation

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This took place from May 27-June 4. About 200,000 soldiers of the British expeditionary force, along with about 130,000 French soldiers, all of whom had been deployed in Belgium, found themselves cut off from the main French army by the German advance. They retreated to the beaches of this town on the English channel. They managed to hold off the Germans for a week while they evacuated, using fishing boats, civilian passenger ships and even pleasure yachts to supplement the Navy. Although this involved abandoning the French, it saved the core of the British army.

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Operation Sea Lion

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This was the name given to Germany's vague plan to invade Britain. It was never put into action, partly because it had not been planned in advance and had to be put together at the last minute, partly because the three branches of the German armed forces couldn't agree on a plan, partly because the Luftwaffe failed to neutralize the RAF in the Battle of Britain and partly because Hitler was more interested in invading the USSR.

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Battle of Britain

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July -September 1940. This was the attempt by the German air force (Luftwaffe) to knock out the British air force (RAF) so as to have control of the skies for a planned invasion of Britain. Germany failed to knock out the British air force, although they came close.

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Blitz

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This lasted from September 1940 to the spring of 1941. It was Germany's attempt to persuade Britain to make peace by bombing British cities. All in all, about 40,000 British subjects were killed by bombing during the war. This was fewer than had been expected (because of radar, evacuations and shelters). It was too dangerous to bomb during the day, so the bombs had to be dropped at night. The bombing was too inaccurate to hit high value targets, so cities were bombed at random. It was very unpleasant, but the Germans did not gain any ground by bombing. Meanwhile the change of tactics gave the RAF time to regroup.

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Stresa Front

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A short-lived alliance between Italy, France and Britain formed in 1935 with the aim of containing German expansionism. It was damaged by the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 and destroyed by Italy's invasion of Abyssinia. The collapse of this alliance made it more difficult to keep the peace.

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Anglo-German Naval Agreement

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An agreement between Germany and Britain in 1935. It allowed Germany to build a fleet one third the size of Britain's, even though this was forbidden in the treaty of Versailles. This giving permission for Germany to rearm was the first step in the policy of appeasement. Chamberlain wasn't Prime Minister at this point, but he was in the Cabinet.

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Italian Invasion of Abyssinia

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This occurred between October 1935 and 1936. Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help. The League imposed sanctions, but the sanctions did not include oil, and Britain and France did not close the Suez Canal to Italy. Non-League members such as Germany and the USA continued to trade with Italy. When the British and French foreign ministers tried to negotiate a backroom deal to give Italy most of the territory, the League was further discredited. In the end, Italy took the territory, the League was completely discredited, and Italy ended up making an alliance with Germany.

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Wal Wal Incident

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This happened in December 1934. Italy had established a fortification in territory claimed by Ethiopia/Abyssinia. There was a skirmish and 30 Italians were killed (along with more than 100 Ethiopians). Mussolini used this as an excuse to invade Ethiopia/Abyssinia the following year, after going through the motions of pretending to negotiate a solution.

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League Sanctions against Italy

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These were imposed in October of 1935, but they were ineffective because they did not include coal, steel and oil and not all members carried them out. Germany, Austria and Hungary ignored them completely. Also, Britain did not close the Suez Canal to Italy. Finally, the USA, which was not a member, increased exports to Italy during this time. The main effect of this action was to cause the Italians to support Mussolini more strongly.

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Hoare Laval Pact

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A proposal worked out between the British and French foreign ministers that would have given Italy most of Abyssinia. When the secret plan leaked out, it caused public outrage and both ministers had to resign. This incident shows how little commitment even the British and French governments had for the principles of the League of Nations, further undermining the League and finishing the Stresa Front.

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Main features of Mussolini's foreign policy in the 1930s

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• He continued to assert anti-French territorial claims. • He moved away from his relatively good relationship with Britain and became more friendly with Nazi Germany: Rome-Berlin Axis (1936); Pact of Steel (1939) • He engaged in wars in Abyssinia, Spain and Albania

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1934 attempt at Anschluss

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When Austrian Nazis murdered the Austrian chancellor on July 25 of this year, Germany appeared to be preparing to take over Austria. Mussolini deterred Hitler from trying this by mobilizing his army on the Austrian border. This helped to persuade Britain and France to reach out to Italy to try to contain Germany. It also persuaded Hitler that he heeded to neutralize Italy before annexing Austria.

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Battle of Adowa

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Italy had suffered a humiliating defeat at this place when they had attempted to conquer Abyssinia in 1896. This was one reason Mussolini was so keen to take Abyssinia in 1934-6.

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Rome-Berlin Axis 1936

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This was an alliance between Germany and Italy signed in October 1936 after Germany had supported Italy's annexation of Abyssinia. (Japan would join in 1940). This alliance made it more difficult to keep the peace. After the signing of this alliance, Italy no longer prevented Germany from annexing Austria.

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Italy joins the Anti-Comintern Pact

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Italy joined this alliance between Germany and Japan (originally formed in 1936) in 1937. By this agreement, the countries agreed to cooperate to oppose Communism. They agreed not to make any agreements with the USSR without the others' consent. This was a sign of Italy's moving closer to Germany. Germany broke this agreement when it signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939, while Japan was actually fighting a brief conflict with the USSR.

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Anschluss

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This term refers to the union of Austria and Germany. It was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Italy had prevented Germany from carrying this out in 1934. In 1936, Mussolini withdrew his objections. Hitler would carry this out in March 1938.

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Annexation of Most of the Rest of Czechoslovakia (Bohemia and Moravia)

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Munich Agreement

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An agreement between Italy, Germany, Britain and France in September 1938 agreeing that Germany could annex the Sudetenland in return for Hitler's promise that this would be his last territorial claim in Europe. This stripped Czechoslovakia of its border defenses. Mussolini won praise for his role as a broker of peace. Chamberlain was also praised for avoiding war. Many historians criticize this agreement as the high point of the policy of appeasement. They argue that this policy allowed Hitler to gain more power and emboldened him.

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Reasons for the Italian invasion of Albania

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• Hitler's conquest of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March made Mussolini want his own conquest to keep up. • It would give Italy control of the mouth of the Adriatic • It would threaten Britain's naval power by increasing Italy's power in the eastern Mediterranean. • King Zog refused an Italian ultimatum on March 25 demanding that he allow the Italian occupation.

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Pact of Steel

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This was an alliance between Italy and Germany signed in May 1939. Unlike the Rome-Berlin Axis, this was a military alliance, committing both countries to military and economic cooperation in peacetime and in the event of war. They also agreed that neither would make peace without the other in the event of war. It was understood by both countries in 1939 that Italy would not be ready for war for three more years.

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Mussolini's Reasons for declaring war in 1940

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• Mussolini had to be consistent with Fascism and maintain his image as a military leader. • He was afraid Italy would become a lesser ranked power if it stayed neutral. • The war would make it easier to radicalize his regime and remove the influence of conservatives and the church. • He thought Germany would win and wanted to have good relations with her. • He hoped for territorial gain, perhaps including control of the Mediterranean. • Germany was Italy's main supplier of coal. Britain had blockaded German ports, cutting off 2/3 of Italy's coal supply.

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Left-wing Italian historians' views on Mussolini's reasons for getting involved in World War II

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These believe that Mussolini had an overly aggressive foreign policy and expansionist aims.

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Right-wing Italian historians' (like De Felice) views on Mussolini's reasons for getting involved in World War II

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Italy did not have large-scale expansionist plans. He was hoping to raise the status of Italy by the "policy of the pendulum" - lending his influence to different sides in European foreign policy. Ultimately, he wanted the French to agree to an expanded Italian empire in North Africa. He allied with Germany because of British and French sanctions in Abyssinia and did not finally decide to enter the war until 1940.

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AJP Taylor's views on Mussolini's reasons for getting involved in World War II

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Mussolini had expansionist goals, but there was a lot of conflict between Italy and Germany in foreign policy. Mussolini hoped Germany would agree to leave Austria independent and that he would be able to play Germany and France off against each other, gaining concessions from both.

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Gerhard Schreiber's views on Mussolini's reasons for getting involved in World War II

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Mussolini's foreign policy was largely for propaganda purposes, to shore up support at home. Mussolini also wanted limited imperial expansion. Mussolini had no clear strategy for the alliance with Nazi Germany and was a victim of his public promises, which forced him to go to war.

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Reasons for Britain's Policy of Appeasement

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• Public opinion was against war. • Many of the demands of the dictators were seen as justified. • There was no clear alternative policy. • The economy was too weak . • The country was overstretched trying to protect its empire across the globe. • Military planning focused on defence. • The personality of the Prime Minister from 1937.

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Reasons for France's Policy of Appeasement

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• They were getting no support from Britain or the USA. • Their effort to enforce the treaty on 1923 ended with them being criticized. • There were frequent changes in government and ideological conflicts, exacerbated by economic problems. Government shifted frequently between the left wing and the right wing, so there was little continuity in foreign policy. • Military planning was defensive.

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Reasons for the failure of the USSR's "Popular Front"

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This was an attempt by the USSR to create an alliance against Fascism. It led them to join the League in 1934 and make mutual assistance pacts with France and Czechoslovakia in 1935. This failed largely because Britain feared communism more than fascism and was unwilling to join in. When they persuaded the French to agree to the Munich Agreement without even inviting the USSR to the talks, the effort fell apart.

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Reasons Mussolini believed Britain and France would let him take Abyssinia

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• They all signed the Stresa Front in March 1935, after the Wal Wal Incident. • At the Stresa Front conference, France said it would not object to Italy's acquiring "political influence" in the country. Britain was silent on the matter. • In June 1935 the British presented Italy with a plan to give them part of the territory. • Italy received intelligence from the British Foreign Office indicating that they would not resist an Italian invasion of the country.

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Proposals Britain made to try to get Germany to rejoin the Disarmament Conference in 1933.

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• That Germany should be allowed to have an army of 200,000 • That France should reduce its army to 200,000 • That Germany should be allowed an air force half the size of the French air force

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Increase in German military expenditure between 1933-1935

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This went from 2.7 billion marks to 8 billion marks. (ie almost tripled)

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Developments that Undermined the Stresa Front

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• The Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty, 1935. Italy didn't want a pact with a communist government and Britain didn't like it either. • The Anglo-German Naval Agreement, June 1935 • The Italian invasion of Abyssinia, October 1935

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Reasons why the French didn't respond to the remilitarisation of the Rhineland

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• Their government at the time was only a caretaker government and not in a position to declare war. • Neither the left or right wing wanted to propose war with the election looming. • Their general staff massively overestimated the number of German troops, thinking there were 265,000 when there were 30,000. • They got no support from Britain.

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Reasons why the British didn't respond to the remilitarisation of the Rhineland

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• They were overcommitted in the Mediterranean and elsewhere and did not think it had enough firepower to go to war with Germany. • They didn't see the German action as particularly threatening, arguing that they were "only going into their own backyard". • The fact that Hitler offered negotiations at the same time made it difficult to go to war. • Political and public opinion were against war.

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Reasons why France didn't intervene in the Spanish Civil War

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-Their government had similar ideology to the Spanish government. - They didn't want a right wing regime on their southern border that might join Germany and Italy against them. - They feared opposition if they intervened directly and they knew Britain would not support them. Therefore the best they could do was to convince all European countries to stay out of the conflict.

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Reasons why Britain didn't intervene in the Spanish Civil War

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- They didn't want the Spanish Civil War to turn into a wider war. - They thought the nationalists would probably win and wanted to stay on their good side. - Their conservative party was in power. They were somewhat sympathetic to the nationalists. They respected Franco's tough anti-union position. - They also viewed the Spanish government as communist, an impression reinforced by the fact that they received aid form the USSR. - They had many investors in Spain who were afraid the new government would threaten their property. - They did not want to upset Mussolini.

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Ways Britain favoured the nationalists in the Spanish Civil War

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• It focused on preventing aid to the republic and let the Nationalists use Gibraltar as a communications base. • In December 1936, Britain signed a trading agreement with the Nationalists that allowed British companies to trade with them. • Franco was able to get credit from British banks, while the Spanish republican government was not.

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Reasons why Britain and France didn't do anything about the Anschluss

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• France was having an internal political crisis and was without a government at the time. • Britain did not support taking action and France felt it couldn't act without British support. • Italy was now friendly with Germany and would not help. • The League had been completely discredited by Abyssinia, so that this crisis wasn't even discussed there. • The British saw it as inevitable and were not prepared to go to war to prevent it.

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Winter War

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War between the USSR and Finland that lasted from November 30, 1939 to March 13, 1940. It began because the USSR demanded that Finland cede some territory around Leningrad and the Finns refuse. Surprisingly, the Finns managed to fight off the first Russian offensive. This made Germany believe that the Soviet army had been critically weakened by the purges, which encouraged Hitler to invade in 1941. Eventually the Finns were overwhelmed and had to cede the territory. Fortunately, this happened before Britain and France got around to declaring war on the USSR. Another result of this was that Finland allied with Nazi Germany.

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Churchill

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This man replaced Chamberlain as Prime Minister of Britain on May 10, 1940. Chamberlain had to resign because the British campaign in Norway had been such a fiasco. This is significant because this man was very much more committed to the war than Chamberlain had been. He saw no alternative to an all-out fight to the death with fascism, whereas Chamberlain had hoped to avoid full- scale war as late as May 1940. This man is also famous for making stirring speeches to keep the British motivated during the war.

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Cash and Carry

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This refers to the loophole the USA added to its Neutrality Act in November 1939 allowing US companies to sell supplies to countries at war provided those countries paid cash and collected the supplies themselves. It was hoped that by preventing US ships form carrying the supplies, the US could avoid being drawn into war as they had been in 1917. This meant that Britain and France could get supplies from the USA, but Germany could not because Britain's navy blockaded its fleet. Therefore, it was the first step towards US involvement in World War II.

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Intentionalist view of the Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

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The Remilitarization of the Rhineland was part of a concerted push by Hitler to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and improve Germany's military and diplomatic position. At the same time, he was reintroducing conscription and rearming Germany.

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Structuralist view of the Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

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The Remilitarisation of the Rhineland seems to be a case of opportunistic timing. The Stresa Front had fallen apart after the Anglo-German Naval agreement and the Italian invasion of Abyssinia. The French government had fallen in January 1936 and France was led by a caretaker government until May, 1936. Another factor in Hitler's decision might have been discontent with economic problems within Germany, causing him to look for ways to boost his popularity.

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Intentionalist view of the Anschluss

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The Nazis had been trying to engineer closer ties with Austria for a while before the Anschluss. In 1934 Austrian Nazis assassinated Dollfuss. In July 1936 there was the Austro-German Agreement, in which Austria agreed to align its foreign policy with Germany's.

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Structuralist view of the Anschluss

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Hitler seems to have believed that his agreement with Schuschnigg in February served his purpose of turning Austria into a German satellite. He only decided to invade when Schuschnigg announced the referendum and only with the encouragement of Goering. The crisis did not develop in a manner forseen by Hitler.

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Intentionalist view of 'Mein Kampf'

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A lot of what Hitler did is consistent with the aims outlined in 'Mein Kampf' in 1923.

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Structuralist view of 'Mein Kampf'

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AJP Taylor argues that 'Mein Kampf' was just daydreams of a man who never expected to have power, not a serious plan. Also, not everything in the book came to pass.

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Intentionalist view of the reasons for the chaotic nature of the Third Reich.

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The chaotic administrative system was a product of the deliberate intention of Hitler to foster rivalries and competing authorities in order to enhance his own power as a decision maker.

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Structuralist view of the reasons for the chaotic nature of the Third Reich.

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The administrative confusion arose from the nature of Hitler's charismatic leadership and was not deliberate policy

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Intentionalist view of the Holocaust

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Hitler aimed to exterminate the Jews and was eventually able to do so.

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Structuralist view of the Holocaust

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The Holocaust developed from a process of radicalization of the regime and the influence of other events, especially the war.

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Intentionalist view of World War II in Europe

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Hitler aimed at world war, and this desire was the prime determinant of German foreign policy.

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Structuralist view of World War II in Europe

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Although Hitler had broad overall aims in foreign policy, he had no blueprint for World War.

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Examples of structuralist historians

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Alan Bullock and AJP Taylor

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Examples of intentionalist historians

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Klaus Hildebrand and Hugh Trevor Roper

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Neil Gregor's view of Hitler's role in causing World War II

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Hitler was a visionary, with a broad vision of a German-dominated Europe which he would use any means to achieve.

7. Causes of World War II in Europe – Flashcards

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