6. Causes of World War II in Asia – Flashcards
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Commodore Matthew Perry
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American naval officer who sailed into the harbour of what is now Tokyo in 1853 and forced the Japanese to open their country to American trade.
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Meiji Restoration
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The period beginning in 1868 when the shogun, who had been the de facto ruler of Japan was overthrown and all power transferred to the emperor. In his name, his advisors launched a rapid programme of modernization and industrialisation aimed at strengthening Japan enough to escape foreign control. Between 1868 and 1912, Japan industrialised very rapidly.
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extraterritoriality
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This was one of the rights granted to westerners in the treaties Japan was forced to sign in the late 1860's and early 1870's. It meant that if they committed crimes in Japan they would be tried by their own government, not the Japanese government. This was resented by most Japanese.
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Unequal Treaties
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These were agreements that Japan was forced to sign with various western countries, granting them the right to live in Japan, trade in Japan and giving them special rights and privileges in Japan. The Japanese greatly resented these and were determined to strengthen the country enough to get the foreigners to back down.
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fukoku kyohei
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This was the slogan of the leaders of the Japanese government from 1868. It meant "enrich the nation; strengthen the army".
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Daimyo
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This was the class of feudal lords in Japan before 1868. Under the shogun, they had complete control of their own lands. When the emperor was restored to power they "voluntarily" gave their lands to him and were compensated with money. They would later be given seats in the Japanese house of Peers. Their former lands were put under central government control and administered by governors appointed from Tokyo.
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Samurai
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This was the warrior class in pre-1868 Japan. After 1868 they lost their special status and their right to wear swords, as everyone in the country supposedly became equal under the law. They were compensated with money, and an effort was made to find them jobs in areas like the police and the army. Later everyone in Japan was encouraged to adopt their warrior code.
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Heimin
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This was the class of commoners in pre-1868 Japan. After 1868 they got the right to have family names, to travel, and to choose their occupations. Also everyone in Japan was made equal under the law. On the other hand, they would bear the brunt of the taxes needed to bring about the economic miracle between 1868 and 1912.
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burakumin
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This was the outcast group of pre-1968 Japan. It comprised outlaws, butchers, tanners, shoemakers and other unclean occupations. Members of this group had to live in segregated neighbourhoods. After 1868, discrimination against this group was officially abolished, but unofficial discrimination continues to this day.
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Shinto
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This was the traditional religion of Japan. It involves the belief that many things in nature are inhabited by gods and spirits and that these spirits include the souls of many great people. Before 1868, it coexisted with Buddhism and there was some merging of the two religions. After 1868, Japanese nationalists who were worried about mounting foreign influence promoted this religion above Buddhism and used it to promote the worship of the emperor. It became the official state religion.
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Iwakura Mission
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This was a delegation of more than fifty of Japan's top government officials who embarked on an extended trip to Europe and the USA in 1871. They hoped to renegotiate the hated treaties with the westerners, which didn't work. However, in the process, they learned a lot about the western countries' technology. They also noted how weak and backward China was. This trip helped them to devise a program of modernisation for Japan and may have convinced them that China was vulnerable.
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zaibatsu
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Industrialisation in Japan was started by the government, which borrowed money from Japanese merchants to get enterprises going. In the 1880s, in need of capital, they sold some of these enterprises to merchants and former feudal lords who could be counted on to support the government's agenda. These favoured buyers were able to form huge monopolies of key industries which were privately owned, but cooperated with the government. Many of these, such as the Mitsubishi, are still powerful today. Historians disagree about whether they have been a force for progress in Japan or not. On the one hand, they spearheaded industrialisation. On the other hand, they are monopolistic. They provided funding for political parties in the Diet in the 1920s, but they were always much more interested in preserving order and their own independence than any democratic agenda.
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1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki
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• Korea declared independent • Japan takes over Taiwan and the Pescadores • Japan takes over Port Arthur and the rest of the Liaodong Peninsula • Chinese treaty ports opened to Japanese • Japanese get "most favoured nation status" in China, giving them all the privileges all the other foreign nations had won. • 300 million tael indemnity (reduced to 200 million after attempt on Li Hongzhang's life)
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Reasons for Japanese Imperialism
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1) They were emulating western powers which had established colonies in Asia: USA in the Philippines, Samoa and Hawaii; Britain in India, Myanmar, Hong Kong; France in Indochina; Netherlands in Indonesia 2) They wanted to prove to the West that they should be treated as an equal nation. 3) They saw Korea as strategically important, a "dagger pointing at the heart of Japan". 4) China and Korea were weak, making it an opportune time to expand. 5) They wanted markets for their goods, sources of raw materials and space for their growing population.
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April 1895 Triple Intervention
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• Russia, France and Germany "advised" Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China in exchange for a further 100 million taels of indemnity. The Meiji emperor told his subjects they must "endure the unendurable" • (in 1898, Russia "leased" Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula and Germany took over Qingdao. In 1899 the French took Guangzhou Bay ) • This provoked fury and distrust of the West in Japan. It also helped to cause the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5)
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Sino-Japanese War
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This began in 1894 when both China and Japan sent troops to Korea to crush the Tonghak revolt and Japan refused to pull out when the revolt ended. Japan won, decisively defeating the new Chinese navy. This was a turning point in Asian history because it proved that Japan, not China was now the strongest country in the region. From 1895, Japan had the same concessions in China that the western powers had. It also set off a "scramble for China" as various powers tried to take advantage of China's weakness. The performance of the Japanese navy also persuaded the UK to ally with Japan in 1902, the first equal alliance Japan signed with a western nation. Finally, it emboldened Japan.
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Treaty of Portsmouth
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This treaty ended the Russo Japanese War (1904-5) in 1905: • Japan took the Liaodong Peninsula, the South Manchurian Railway, and the southern part of Sakhalin Island • Russia acknowledged Korea as being a protectorate of Japan.
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Russo Japanese War
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This lasted from 1904-1905. It was caused by a dispute between Russia and Japan over Korea. The Japanese surprised the world by defeating the Russians decisively. It was the first time an Asian nation had defeated a European nation in war. This meant there was no further obstacle to Japan taking over Korea and she had gained a strong foothold in Manchuria as well, which fueled Japan's imperial ambitions. The strain of the war set off the 1905 revolution in Russia. In Japan, this greatly increased nationalism among the people.
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Composition of Japanese Parliament (AKA Imperial Diet) in the Meiji Constitution of 1890
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This was composed of two houses. The House of Peers was made up of noblemen (former daimyo, members of the imperial family and new peers appointed by the emperor), who served for life. The House of Representatives was made up of 300 representatives elected by approximately 1% of the Japanese people (men paying more than 15 yen in tax). They served for four-year terms (unless the emperor called an early election).
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Powers of Japanese Parliament in the Meiji Constitution of 1890
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1) Pass laws (which the Emperor could veto) 2) Pass the annual budget (but if they didn't pass it, the previous year's budget could be used.)
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Powers the Japanese Parliament did NOT have in the Meiji Constitution of 1890
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•No control of who was in the cabinet. •No way to override the emperor if he decided to veto them. •The emperor could call new elections at any time. •Limited control over the budget. •No control over the Meiji leaders who advised the emperor behind the scenes (aka Genro)
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Demographic Changes
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Between 1900 and 1940, the population grew from about 45 million to 73 million. At the same time, the cities grew rapidly. Whereas in 1903 only 9.2% of the population lived in cities (about 4.5 million people), in 1935 it was 25.4% (about 17.5 million people).
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Unions
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These became more militant during the Taisho period. Although the government prohibited strikes there were 497 in 1919 alone. These organizations agitated for better wages, shorter hours and better working conditions. In order to achieve this, they lobbied to extend suffrage to all adult males.
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Rice Riots of 1918
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These occurred across the country for 50 days. Workers were angry that, while the economy was booming, their wages didn't keep pace with the soaring price of rice. The army eventually suppressed the disturbances, killing over 1,000 people and arresting 25,000.
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Great Kanto Earthquake
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This occurred in Tokyo on September 1 1923. It struck at lunchtime, destroying buildings and knocking over thousands of cooking stoves, which caused a firestorm that lasted two days. Somewhere between 100,000-200,000 people were killed and ¾ of the homes in the city were destroyed. This temporarily halted economic activity in Japan's largest city, damaging the already faltering economy. Within hours of the earthquake there were rumours that Koreans were setting fires and were planning a rebellion. About 2,600-6600 Koreans were massacred over the next few days.
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"Showa Restoration"
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This was the idea that Japan ought to have a nationwide return to Japanese values and rule by the emperor, as opposed to rule by corrupt politicians, big business and western influence. The "Imperial Way" faction in the army tried to bring this about several times between 1931 and 1936, launching two coup attempts in 1931, assassinating Prime Minister Inukai, in 1932 and capturing key government buildings and assassinating several people in 1936.
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May 15 incident
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On this date in 1932, a group of young naval officers assassinated Prime Minister Inukai (Seiyukai) and attempted to seize power. They were not successful, but this incident put an end to cabinets dominated by elected politicians and the end of attempts by politicians to control the military. The naval officers were treated very leniently and garnered a lot of popular support. Eleven young people wrote in offering to be executed in their place, cutting off their fingers to show they were serious.
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February 26, 1936
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On this date, 1500 troops loyal to the Imperial Way faction in the army took over central Tokyo. They killed most of the cabinet, former Prime Minister Saito and opponents in the military and among high court advisors. They demanded that the senior statesmen appoint a sympathetic Prime Minister and other new leaders and called for a "Showa Restoration." The emperor ordered them to surrender, and several ringleaders were executed. From this point forward, the "control" faction of the army took charge of the country.
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Kokutai no Hongi
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This was a manifesto issued by the Ministry of Education in 1937. It literally means "The Cardinal Principles of the National Polity". It blamed Japan's social and ideological crisis on Western beliefs ranging from individualism to communism. It urged the Japanese to base their social and moral lives on "serving the Emperor and accepting the Emperor's august will as one's own." It exalted loyalty, militarism and the family hierarchy.
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Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902
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This was an agreement between Japan and the UK negotiated after Japan's impressive performance in the Sino-Japanese War. This was an important milestone for Japan because it was the first time a western power had made an agreement with Japan on equal terms. It seemed to signal that Japan was on the way to achieving its goal of acceptance by the imperial powers. It also meant the UK would not try to prevent Japan from taking over Korea.
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Twenty-One Demands
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A document delivered by Japan to China in 1915 in which Japan made a variety of demands of China ranging from territorial concessions to the right of Japan to appoint "advisors" to the Chinese government. Yuan Shikai agreed to most of these demands, prompting a storm of protest in China. This marked the real beginning of the so-called "May Fourth Movement". These demands also worried western nations that had interests in Japan. Japan saw the reaction of western nations as pure hypocrisy. Japanese nationalists began advocating a Japanese-centred pan-Asian form of imperialism in which Westerners would have no right to interfere in Asia. Some began thinking about war with America and Europe over control of Asia.
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Siberian Intervention
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When the Russian Civil War broke out in March 1918, the USA invited Japan to send troops to help the Whites, along with the USA, Britain and France. He asked for 7000 Japanese troops. Japan promised 12,000 and actually sent 70,000. They hoped to either topple the communist government or establish an anti-communist state in Siberia. Although the USA, Britain, and France pulled out of the Civil War in 1920, Japan left its troops in until 1922. This caused the western powers to be suspicious of Japan's motives, the USSR to dislike Japan and many Japanese people to oppose the cost. Japan finally withdrew after losing 3000 men.
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Racial Equality Clause
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Japan asked for this to be included in the covenant of the League of Nations, but Australia and others objected. A vote was held, and eleven of the seventeen nations represented voted in favour. Britain and the USA were among those who did not vote in favour. They did not call for a vote against the proposal. President Wilson refused to make it part of the covenant of the League because it did not have unanimous support. This refusal helped damage relations between Japan and other members of the League, since Japan took it as an insult. (It seems that Japan had not considered the implications of the clause as covering all races. They proposed it to ensure that the Japanese would be treated as equals within the League.)
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American Immigration Policy
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This angered the Japanese government and people and helped to poison relations between Japan and the USA: • 1907: "Gentleman's Agreement" between Theodore Roosevelt and Saionji commits Japan to limit emigration to the USA. • Legislation in California prohibited Japanese immigrants from owning or leasing land. • 1922 The US Supreme Court ruled that no Japanese or Asian immigrants could become US citizens. • 1924 Immigration Act banned all Japanese immigration.
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Washington Naval Conference
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At this international conference, held in 1922, Japan agreed to limit its navy to 3/5 the size of the US and British navies. In return, the British and Americans promised not to build naval fortifications in the Western Pacific. At the same conference, Japan handed sovereignty over Shandong (where they had taken over the area around Qingdao during the war) back to China, although they retained their economic dominance in the region. These compromises angered Japanese nationalists.
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Reasons for adopting internationalism in the 1920s
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• The influence of Shidehara Kijuro, who was foreign minister from 1924-27 and 1929-31. • The wish to keep good relations with the USA, which was a key trading partner, as well as other western powers. • It seemed possible to advance Japan's economic interests in China without war.
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Accession of Emperor Hirohito
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The Taisho emperor, who had theoretically ruled form 1912-1926 was mentally unstable or perhaps mentally deficient. His son, Hirohito, had served as regent for much of his father's reign. When the Taisho Emperor died in 1926, Hirohito became the Showa emperor. This accession of an intelligent young leader encouraged nationalists to call for a return to rule by the emperor, as opposed to politicians. The constitution gave the emperor enormous power should he decide to exercise it. He was also revered as a god in the Shinto religion. This legal and mystical power allowed the armed forces to act increasingly independently of elected politicians as long as they professed to be acting for the emperor.
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Instability in China
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The situation in this country was turbulent in the first half of the twentieth century. First the emperor was overthrown, then warlords took over most of the country, then a civil war broke out between communists and the GMD. All of this created a power vacuum that encouraged Japan to try to increase its influence in this country.
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Assassination of Zhang Zuolin
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This man was the warlord of Manchuria. On June 4, 1928 officers of the Kwnatung army killed him. They were acting without authorization from the Chinese government. They hoped that the fallout from this would give them an excuse to conquer Manchuria. They hoped his son would be easier to control. In fact, his son immediately made an alliance with Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kaishek). When Prime Minister Tanaka tried to discipline the assassins, he was blocked by the army. This episode illustrates the inability of the Japanese government to control the army. It also illustrates the power of the emperor in Japan because Tanaka was forced to resign because the emperor was unhappy about this incident.
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Resignation of Prime Minister Tanaka
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This happened in July 1929. It illustrates two things. The first is the inability of the Japanese government to control the military, because his reason for doing this was that he had been blocked by the army from punishing those responsible for the assassination of Zhang Zuolin. The second thing it illustrates is the power of the emperor since it was the emperor's criticism that forced him to take this step.
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Prime Minister Hamaguchi
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This man became Prime Minister in 1929. He was from the Minseito Party. In the 1930 election, he won a majority in the Diet by promising good relations with China, disarmament and an end to corruption. However, he became unpopular during the Great Depression, when he cut government and military salaries. Nationalists and military men were further outraged when he made compromises at the London Naval Conference of 1930s. Although he had promised to negotiate a 10:10:7 ratio of naval tonnage with the USA and the UK, he was not able to get this for all types of ships. He was shot by a right-wing radical in November 1930 and died the following year. This illustrates the fact that Japanese democracy was very vulnerable to the violence of the radical nationalists. It helps to explain why politicians were not able to control the armed forces.
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Smoot-Hawley Tariff
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This was signed into law by American President Hoover in 1930 and it raised import tariffs to the USA to the highest rate in US peacetime history. Tariffs on some Japanese goods rose as much as 200%. This hurt Japan's exports, especially the silk industry. It helped to convince many Japanese that the country needed colonies to serve as guaranteed markets for Japanese goods.
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Japanese reasons for wanting to control Manchuria
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• They wanted resources, i.e. coal, iron and timber. • They wanted a guaranteed market for Japanese manufactured goods. • They wanted living space for an over-populated Japan. • They wanted a buffer state between Japan and the USSR.
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Zhang Xueliang
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This man became warlord of Manchuria in 1928 after his father was assassinated by Japanese soldiers. They had hoped that he would be easier to control than his father because he was a playboy and an opium addict, but in fact he rallied his forces and made an alliance with Jiang Jieshi (Chaiang Kaishek) to resist further Japanese expansion. This prompted a group of Kwantung army officers to stage an incident as an excuse to seize Manchuria before it got too strong. Later, in 1936, this man would kidnap Jiang Jieshi and force him to ally with the Communists against the Japanese. He would then fly back to Nanjing with Jiang and submit to house arrest for the rest of his life. He has gone down in Chinese history as a hero for putting his country first.
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Kwantung Army
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The Japanese army posted in Manchuria to guard the South Manchurian Railway and other Japanese interests. It was increasingly acting without authorization from the government. They assassinated Zhang Zuolin in 1928 and seized Manchuria in 1931. When the Japanese government ordered them to withdraw, they refused.
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Mukden Incident
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The 1931 incident that provided the excuse for the Japanese annexation of Manchuria. Knowing that the government in Tokyo was sending a senior general to demand restraint, a group of junior officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army blew up a section of the South Manchurian Railway, blamed the Chinese and seized the territory.
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Anti-Comintern Pact
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Japan signed this agreement with Nazi Germany in 1936. Italy would join it in 1937. Partly Japan agreed to this because they admired Germany, which has also walked out of the League. Partly it was because they were concerned about the threat posed by the USSR's communist ideology and interests in Manchuria. By this agreement, both sides agreed to cooperate to oppose Communism. They agreed that neither would make any agreements with the USSR without the other's consent. Germany broke this agreement when it signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939, while Japan was actually fighting a brief conflict with the USSR.
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Attack on Shanghai 1932
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This is also known as the January 28 Incident. According to the Chinese, Japan deliberately instigated attacks on some of its citizens and property in the city. According to the Japanese, they were responding to attacks on their citizens and anti-Japanese protests in the city. They attacked the city, bombing civilian neighbourhoods (the first deliberate carpet bombing of a civilian population). About 90,000 soldiers attacked the city, which was defended fiercely by a similarly sized Chinese force. This attack drew widespread international condemnation. Eventually a cease-fire was agreed. China agreed to not post any troops in or around the city, while Japan had a few units guarding its concession.
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Boycott
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This was a refusal by most Chinese to buy Japanese goods after the annexation of Manchuria and the attack on Shanghai. It reduced sales of Japanese goods in China by two-thirds. Unfortunately, Japan was unwilling to back down.
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Tanggu Treaty 1933
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In this agreement, Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kaishek) agreed to Japanese control of Manchuria and part of Inner Mongolia. It created a demilitarized zone stretching 100 km south of the Great Wall, covering all the territory between the Great Wall and Beijing. This angered patriotic Chinese people but bought Jiang time to deal with the Communists and organize his defences. It also angered Zhang Xueliang, former warlord of the region.
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Hebei 1935
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This is the province that surrounds Beijing and Tianjin and is bordered by Inner Mongolia in the north, Shandong to the southeast, Henan to the south and Shanxi to the west. On this date, Jiang Jieshi agreed to remove his troops from this province, effectively handing Japan control. This angered patriotic Chinese people but bought Jiang time to deal with the Communists and organize his defences. It also angered Zhang Xueliang, former warlord of the region.
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Imperial Way Faction (A.K.A. Kodo-ha)
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This was a faction composed of radical members of the army and some civilian sympathisers. They wanted to eliminate the influence of party politicians, zaibatsu and status quo-minded senior statesmen and court figures. The stressed the importance of spiritual education and loyalty to the emperor as foundations of national strength. Although often associated with younger activists, they had support at the very top from people like 1932-1934 Army Minister Araki Sadao. This group launched several coup attempts and assassinated various politicians and business leaders in the early 1930s, culmination in the attempted coup of February 26, 1936. This was condemned by the emperor, and the ringleaders were executed. After this, the other faction in the army was in control.
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Control Faction (A.K.A. Tosei-ha)
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This was a faction comprising mostly more senior army officers, including General Tojo. They wanted to mobilize Japanese society for what they expected to be an impending war with the West. They rejected the terrorist violence of their rival faction and sought to control the state by legal means and through cooperation with existing elites. After the failed coup of February 26, 1936, this faction was firmly in control of the army.
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Rape of Nanjing
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A period of about seven weeks from December 1937 to January 1938 during which Japanese soldiers massacred thousands of civilians and prisoners of war in Nanjing. The lowest Japanese estimates put the number of dead at 40,000. The official Chinese government estimate is 300,000. In addition, thousands of women were raped. It is possible that the Japanese commanders allowed this because they hoped it would destroy the Chinese will to resist and allow Japan to negotiate peace on favourable terms. In fact, it galvanized Chinese resistance.
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Hirota Koki
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This man became Prime Minister of Japan after the attempted coup of February 26, 1936. He was weak and hand to make compromises with the military, including agreeing to pursue a strong foreign policy and reinstating the rule that ministers for the army and navy had to be serving officers. This effectively gave the army and navy veto power over who could be Prime Minister because they could refuse to provide ministers for Prime Ministers they didn't like, thus preventing them from forming cabinets. This man expanded arms production and signed the anti-Comintern Pact with Germany in 1936. He had to resign in February 1937.
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Konoe Fumimaro
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This man became Prime Minister of Japan in June 1937. He wanted to restrain the army, but he was unable to. The Control Faction in the army was determined to expand in China and this man was powerless to prevent it. He was Prime Minister during the Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937) and the Rape of Nanking (December-January 1937-8). His government attempted to negotiate with Chiang Kaishek but these negotiations broke down. He resigned in 1939, saying he was tired of being a "robot" for the military. At the army's insistence, he returned as Prime Minister in 1940. He tried to avoid war with the USA. He got the military to agree that he could negotiate with the USA, but they insisted that in return he had to agree that Japan would go to war if no progress was made by mid-October. Unaware of the deadline, the Americans were in no particular hurry to arrange a summit, and the deadline came and went. General Tojo insisted on war and the Navy backed him. This man resigned on October 18. After leaving office, he helped to topple the Tojo government in 1944. In February 1945 he advised the emperor to negotiate peace, but his advice was rejected. He was part of Japan's first post-war cabinet in 1945, but was soon accused of war crimes by the Americans. He committed suicide with cyanide in December 1945.
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Marco Polo Bridge Incident
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This was a skirmish between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge on the outskirts of Beijing on July 7, 1937. (37/7/7). It is not clear which side started the incident, but the Japanese army had moved forces from Korea to Japan without consulting the government and the incident was used as an excuse for the Japanese army to invade the rest of China. This incident marks the official beginning of World War II in Asia.
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Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
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This was what Japan claimed to be building in Asia from 1940 onwards. These name suggested that it was intended to benefit all Asians and there was some sympathy for the goal of "Asia for the Asians" in the parts of Asia that were European colonies, but the Japanese occupiers soon lost this sympathy through brutal behavior and through their practice of stripping conquered territories of food and resources to benefit Japan.
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Imperial Rule Assistance Association
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This was a national unity party founded by Prime Minister Konoe in 1940. It replaced all political parties in Japan. It helped to reorganize Japan along fascist lines in order to coordinate Japan's war effort.
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General Tojo
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Career army officer who strongly advocated signing the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. He was the one who insisted that Japan go to war with the USA, Britain and the Netherlands if negotiations failed to get anywhere by mid October 1941. When Prime Minister Konoe resigned, this man took over and began planning war with the USA, Britain and the Netherlands. Japan attacked on December 7, 1941. While Japan was winning battles, he was wildly popular. As they began to lose, he became very unpopular, and there were several assassination attempts. After the fall of Saipan (the first island with a large Japanese population to be taken by the US and the first island near enough to serve as a base for bombing Japan with land-based aircraft) he was forced to resign. After the war, he was immediatley arrested by the Americans (he tried to shoot himself, but was revived in hospital). He was tried for war crimes and accepted full responsibility (probably in order to make sure no blame would fall on the emperor). He was hanged in 1948.
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Indo-China
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This was a French colony comprising modern-day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The German conquest of France in June 1940 paved the way for Japan to move in to this area. In November 1940 they established bases in the northern part of this territory from which to attack Chiang Kaishek in China. This prompted the US to impose and embargo on selling iron and steel scrap to Japan and to close the Panama canal to Japanese shipping. When Japan occupied the whole of this territory in 1941, the US froze Japanese assets and placed an embargo on oil exports to Japan, demanding that Japan pull out of both this territory and China. This prompted Japan to attack Pearl Harbour in December of 1941.
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Tripartite Axis Pact
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This was signed by Prime Minister Konoe's foreign minister in September 1940. By this, Japan, Italy and Germany agreed that Germany and Italy would dominate Europe, while Japan would dominate "Greater East Asia." This meant Germany would not object to Japan's taking the Asian colonies of occupied France and The Netherlands (Indochina and Indonesia).It also committed the three countries to support each other against the USA if it entered the war. This helped to damage relations between Japan and the west. It also seems to have cause Hitler to declare war on the USA in December 1941.
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Neutrality Pact with the USSR
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This was signed in April 1941. It committed Japan and the USSR not to attack each other for five years, meaning it would have expired in April 1946. This would free up the USSR to move troops from Siberia to counter the German invasion later in the year, and it freed Japan to move troops from Manchuria south into China. The USSR broke this agreement in August 1945 when it declared war on Japan.
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Nazi Victories in Europe
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Britain and France declared war on Germany in September 1939. In June 1940 Germany conquered Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and Denmark and began air raids on Britain. This allowed Japan to take over European colonies in Asia, beginning with French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) and later including British Hong Kong, Malaya (Malaysia) and Singapore and the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia).
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US Revisionist Historians
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Usually writing during the war in Vietnam these were suspicious of US motives. They argue that Japan's motives in Asia in the 1930s were to purge Asia of western corruption. They argue that the USA encouraged Japan by not resisting their actions in the 1930s. They argue that Roosevelt deliberately provoked war with Japan and that, having broken the Japanese code, he allowed the attack on Pearl Harbour to proceed in order to have an excuse to go to war.
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Orthodox US Historians and Saburo Ienaga
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These people date the war from 1937. They argue that Japanese imperialism and militarism caused them to wage a war of aggression and expansion and that Japan is to blame for the Pacific War.
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Left-Wing Japanese Historians
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These date the war from 1931 and blame a "militarist-capitalist clique" for leading Japan into war. They argue that the Japanese public had been indoctrinated by pre-war education.
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Right-Wing Japanese Historians
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These date the war from December 7 1941. They claim Japan was trying to liberate Asia from western colonialism and was forced into war by the US oil embargo. These historians sometimes take credit for post-war independence movements in Asia. Some also assert that the "Rape of Nanjing" was a fiction. Some even date the war from the arrival of Americans in Japan in 1853.
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Traditional historians' view of the role of the emperor in causing the war
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They argue that he didn't want war but had no choice other than to submit to the militarists.
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Revisionist historians' view of the role of the emperor in causing the war
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They argue that he supported Japanese expansionism. He could have stopped it but did not.
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Decision of the Japanese Cabinet September 4, 1941
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This was that they would prepare for war while simultaneously negotiating with Britain and the USA. If that hadn't worked by October 10, they would make the decision to commence hostilities against Britain, The Netherlands and the USA.
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Pearl Harbour
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The site of a Japanese attack on the USA on December 7 1941. 2,402 Americans were killed and 1282 wounded (only 48 of the dead were civilians). 150 'planes were destroyed and 19 ships either sunk or disabled. This brought the USA into the war. Hitler declared war on the USA shortly afterwards and Britain and its dominions immediately declared war on Japan, linking the Sino-Japanese War to the war in Europe and North Africa. Four of the eight battleships of the US Pacific fleet were sunk and the other four damaged. Several smaller ships were also destroyed. The US aircraft carriers were at sea when the raid occurred.
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Other US and British Positions Attacked in December, 1941
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• Philippines • Guam • Midway • Hong Kong • Malay Peninsula
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Kellogg-Briand Pact
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This was initiated by the American Secretary of State and the French Foreign Minister in 1928. It was an agreement to renounce war as an instrument of international policy. Of the 64 states invited to sign it, only Brazil and Argentina declined. Germany, Italy Japan and the USSR all signed it.
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Lytton Commission
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When Japan took over Manchuria in 1931, China protested to the League of Nations. This is the name of the group the League set up to look into the matter. It took several months to get to Manchuria and then several more to make a report. In this time, the Kwantung army was able to solidify its hold on Manchuria and set up the puppet state of "Manchukuo". This group finally reported in 1933 that: • Japan had "special interests" in Manchuria but did not have the right to take over the whole province. • Japan should withdraw its forces from Manchuria. • Manchukuo was not an independent state and should not be recognized by other countries. • It recommended reforms in the administration of Manchuria, but said these should be conducted under Chinese sovereignty.
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Japanese Reaction to the Lytton Report
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This was written by the League of Nations Committee that investigated the Japanese takeover of Manchuria. It condemned "Manchukuo" as an illegitimate puppet state. Government leaders presented this to the public as an outrage and portrayed Japan as a "martyr" on the "hostile stage of world opinion." They used this international condemnation as an excuse for further expansion in defiance of the west. Japan withdrew from the League in March 1933.
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The Nine Power Treaty Conference of November 1937
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This was a conference of the parties that had signed on to the Washington Treaty on 1922 (Japan, China, USA, Britain, France, Portugal, Belgium, Italy and The Netherlands). Japan refused to participate in this conference, which took place as Japan competed the conquest of Shanghai and advanced on Nanjing. The rest of the participants condemned Japan's actions and urged that hostilities be suspended , but took no further action.
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Xian Incident
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This occurred in December 1936 when troops under the command of Zhang Xueliang (former warlord of Manchuria) kidnapped Chiang Kaishek (Jiang Jieshi) at gunpoint and handed him over to the Communists, insisting that the GMD should be fighting the Japanese, not the CCP. Zhou Enlai negotiated the Second United Front with him. This demonstrates the continued independence of the warlords. It was a propaganda victory for the communists because they were seen to be putting the country before party considerations or their desire for revenge. It made Japan's task of conquering China more difficult.
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Second United Front
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This lasted from 1937-1941. It was an alliance of the CCP and GMD against the Japanese. Although it was nominally led by Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-Shek) in fact the CCP forces acted independently of the GMD. This alliance was forced on Chiang Kai-Shek (Jiang Jieshi) in the Xian incident. It made Japan's task of conquering China more difficult.
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Wang Jingwei
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This man had been one of Chiang's rivals for power back in 1927. He was the second most influential member of the GMD. He was strongly against the war with Japan, believing it would be disastrous for China. As Prime Minister of China in 1932-33 he had agreed to the Tanggu Truce. In December of 1938, he defected to the Japanese and in March 1940 agreed to lead a government of collaboration in Japanese-Occupied China. He justified this by claiming that Japan and China should unite against threats from the USSR and the western powers. He had little actual power. He had no control of north China or of many other "special zones" designated by the Japanese. He was dependent on Japanese military backing. His regime may have mitigated the worst effects of the Japanese occupation, but it has not stopped this man from going down in history as a traitor. He died in 1944. In 1945 his wife was arrested and sentenced to life in prison.
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Stimson Doctrine
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This was a policy of the US government decided on January 7, 1932. The USA declared that it would not recognize any agreement that would violate China's economic and territorial integrity, the USA's "open door" policy or the Kellogg-Briand Pact. This meant they did not recognize the Japanese annexation of Manchuria or subsequent territorial acquisitions in China. It also allowed the USA to give the impression of upholding international law while avoiding committing to economic sanctions.
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Neutrality Act 1935
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This law passed by the US Congress forbade selling arms or war materials to any country involved in a conflict. It was hoped that this would discourage war, and also keep the USA out of future wars. It was criticized because it didn't differentiate between aggressors and those attacked. Also it only affected actual weapons, not things like fuel, that were essential to a country's war effort. It also didn't stop US banks from loaning money to belligerents.
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Neutrality Act 1936
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This law passed by the US Congress forbade selling arms or war materials to any country involved in a conflict and also forbade US banks and companies to loan money to belligerents. It was hoped that this would discourage war, and also keep the USA out of future wars. It was criticized because it didn't differentiate between aggressors and those attacked. It also didn't cover Civil Wars like the one going on in Spain at the time. Also it only affected actual weapons, not things like trucks and oil.
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Neutrality Act 1937
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This law passed by the US Congress forbade selling arms or war materials to any country involved in a conflict and also forbade US banks and companies to loan money to belligerents. Furthermore, it forbade US passengers to travel on ships owned by belligerents. Unlike the previous law of this type, it included Civil Wars in the provision of the law. There was a two year provision allowing the sale of arms to countries who paid in cash and transported the goods themselves. It was hoped that this would discourage war, and also keep the USA out of future wars. It was criticized because it didn't differentiate between aggressors and those attacked. Also it only affected actual weapons, not things like trucks and oil. After the Marco Polo Bridge incident, Roosevelt argued that this law did not apply to China because neither side had declared war.
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Neutrality Act 1939
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This law was passed by the US congress after the outbreak of war in Europe. It allowed the sale of arms to belligerents as long as they paid cash and transported the arms themselves. (This meant that in Europe only Britain and France would be in a position to buy US weapons.) American citizens and ships were barred from entering war zones designated by the President. This policy came to an end with the Lend-Lease Act of 1941.
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Isolationism
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This was a policy pursued by the United States in the years between World War I and World War II. It mandated staying out of international conflicts except for those that directly affected them.
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USS Panay
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This was an American gunboat that was sunk by the Japanese during their attack on Nanking in December 1937. The Japanese claimed it was an accident, apologised and paid an indemnity and things were smoothed over, but it hurt US-Japanese relations.
