14.04 Anatomy Test – Flashcards

A) The nervous system is built for quick control and reactions the endocrine system uses hormones which are slowly transported through the blood. B) The nervous system prods muscles and glands into action. The endocrine system uses hormones to interact with cells. C) the nervous system controls movement and activating glands. While the endocrine system controls growth, development, reproduction, and maintaining balance

The pancreas and gonads are mixed endocrine/exocrine glands, while the anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, and parathyroids are purely endocrine.

Hormones are chemical substances that are secreted by cells and regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body. They are usually small chemicals and are split into two groups: amino acid based molecules and steroids.

Endocrine glands can be stimulated to release hormones via 3 main mechanisms. Hormonal in which other hormones bind and cause the gland to release their hormones (ex. thyroid stimulating hormone from the pituitary stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxine), humoral in which the endocrine gland senses a change in blood chemistry that causes it to release hormones (ex. parathyroid sensing low blood Ca and releasing PTH), and neural in which a stimulus from a nerve cell causes the gland to release hormones (ex. signals from the CNS cause the adrenals to release glucocorticoids).

Negative feedback is when rising levels of a substance such as a hormone inhibits further release of that substance. This is how hormone levels are regulated in the blood, ensuring sufficient levels of hormone while preventing blood concentration from getting too high.

A target organ is one which has the appropriate receptors on its cells to respond to a particular hormone. Even though hormones reach all parts of the body, they only affect cells that have the proper receptor for them to bind to.

The adrenal medulla is important for very short term stress responses such as the "fight or flight" responses when your body needs to act quickly. It effectively prolongs the sympathetic nervous system response. If a stress is a little bit more prolonged the adrenal cortex and anterior pituitary will become activated to increase glucocorticoids and help the body deal with the ongoing stress.

Hormones from the anterior pituitary are released in response to releasing hormones that are secreted from the hypothalamus

Tropic hormones stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete their hormones and effect other body tissues.

The posterior pituitary is not a true endocrine gland because it does not make the hormones that it releases. Instead these hormones are made in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary until they are released.

The most common cause of hypersecretion by endocrine organs is a tumor made up of hormone producing cells that cannot be regulated by normal negative feedback regulations.

antagonists of insulin: glucagon, glucocorticoids, epinephrine antagonist of PTH: calcitonin

Aldosterone and ADH are both involved in fluid and electrolyte balance by acting on the kidney. Aldosterone causes the kidney to retain salt and thereby also retain water isoosmotically. ADH causes the body to retain water but does not affect salt retention, so high levels of ADH lowers blood osmolality.

A simple goiter develops when you are deficient in iodine. The thyroid needs iodine to make thyroxine, and when there is not enough iodine present the thyroid will enlarge in an effort to keep up thyroxine production. This enlargement on the neck is called a goiter.

Decreased hormone production account for many changes that are seen in the elderly such as menopause and its associated symptoms, muscle atrophy from decreased growth hormone, and increased rates of type 2 diabetes from decreased insulin production.

Too much testosterone

She probably has idiopathic short stature (short stature from unknown causes) and was mostly likely prescribed human growth hormone. She may reach normal height because the growth hormone will act on her epiphyseal plates of her long bones and cause them to lengthen.

Pitocin will cause her uterus to have stronger contractions which are more sustained. Hopefully this will allow her labor to progress normally

She is probably suffering from hypersecretion of catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. This could be due to a tumor of the adrenal gland that is secreting too many hormones. This is not a thyroid problem because she does not have bulging eyes and she has additional symptoms such as excessive sweating.

Anabolic steroids will increase muscle mass and strength but they also have harmful side effects such as liver, kidney, and heart disease, acne, hair loss, and severe mood changes.

She most likely has Cushing's disease caused by overproduction of cortisol by the adrenal glands.

About 5 liters of blood.

Blood can range from bright red to dull red depending on how much oxygen is dissolved in it.

Nutrients, wastes, ions, gases, proteins, hormones

Formed elements are cells, cell remnants, and cell fragments in the blood. The three major categories are red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets, with red blood cells being the most numerous of the three. The buffy coat is made up of leukocytes and platelets.

The average lifespan of an RBC is 120 days. Because it has no nucleus, it cannot repair itself if it becomes damages and so damaged RBCs will have even shorter lifespans.

Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. It can be caused by too few RBCs, too little hemoglobin, or abnormal hemoglobin.

The granular WBCs include neutrophils which phagocytose bacteria, eosinophils which functino against parasites, and basophils which release inflammatory molecules such as histamine. The agranular WBCs include monocytes which are active phagocytes, and lymphocytes which are responsible for the humoral and cell mediated immune systems.

15,000 because your number of white blood cells would increase to try to help fight off the infection. This is called leukocytosis.

Hematocytoblasts are responsible for the formation of all the formed elements. Erythrocytes, platelets, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils all form from the myeloid stem cells and lymphocytes form from the lymphoid stem cell.

Hemostasis is the stoppage of blood flow in response to a break in a vessel wall. This occurs by the process of temporary platelet plug formation, vascular spasm to prevent blood loss, and coagulation to form a stable fibrin clot which will be in place until the vessel can heal.

The liver is the site of production of many of the clotting proteins needed for coagulation, so liver dysfunction can lead to a reduction of these proteins and an decreased ability to form clots.

The basis for blood groups are the antigens (or certain groups of sugar molecules) found on the surface of red blood cells. Agglutinins are antibodies that can recognize these antigens as foreign and bind to them, causing red blood cells to clump up.

The four ABO blood groups are type A, B, AB, and O. Type O is the most common and type AB is the least common.

A transfusion reaction occurs when blood is transfused into a person who has different blood group antigens form the donor. When this occurs, the patient's antibodies will recognize the donor RBC antigens as foreign and will bind to them causing agglutination of RBCs. This can lead to blockage of small vessels, lysis of RBCs, and kidney failure due to the free hemoglobin that is released. Tranfusion reactions can also cause fever, chills, nausea, and vomiting.

An Rh- person does not have a transfusion reaction to Rh+ blood when first exposed because they do not yet have antibodies to the Rh antigen. The second time they are exposed they will have a transfusion reaction because they now have anti-Rh antibodies that were made the first time they were exposed to the Rh+ blood.

High, because hemoglobin is carried in RBCs so if you have more RBCs, as determined by the high hematocrit, this means you should also have more hemoglobin.

Elderly people are likely to suffer form leukemias, anemias, particularly pernicious anemia, and undesirable clot formation.

Erythropoietin

This is indicative of aplastic anemia. Short term, the patient should have transfusion of packed RBCs to replace the RBCs that are not being produced. Long term the patient may require a bone marrow transplant.

This is most likely iron deficient anemia resulting from chronic blood loss.

Polycythemia vera

a. This is because when he was living at high altitudes in the Swiss Alps there was less oxygen and so his body produced more RBCs to maintain a constant level of circulating oxygen in his body. b. His RBC count will return to normal after a few months back at a lower altitude because he no longer need excess RBCs to transport sufficient oxygen so production will decrease.

When an artery is crushed and torn there will be more damage to the vessel wall leading to increased released of clotting factors such as tissue factor, and an increase vasospastic response. When an artery is cleanly severed there is less damaged and so these pathways are not as extensively activated and you are more likely to bleed to death.

The heart is positioned in the middle of the thoracic cavity in the space known as the mediastinum, between the lungs. The heart is angled with its pointed apex situated at the level of rib 5 in the midclavicular line, and directed at the lower left quadrant. Its flatter base point backwards toward the right shoulder and situated at the level of rib 2.

Blood travels from the right atrium to the right ventricle, out through the pulmonary trunk and into the left and right pulmonary arteries. From here, blood travels through the rest of the pulmonary arterial circulation until it reaches the capillary beds surrounding the alveoli. Blood moves next through the pulmonary venous circulation until all of it converges again in the right and left pulmonary veins which empty into the left atrium. This is the pulmonary circuit.

The systemic circulation connects the heart and the rest of the body. It is responsible for bringing oxygenated blood to all the tissues in the body and removing CO2 via the veins. The pulmonic circulation connects the heart and the lungs and is responsible for bringing blood into the proper location for gas exchange so that new oxygen can be brought in and CO2 can be excreted.

Heat valves are important to make sure blood flow is only occurring in one direction. If valves are leaky the heart can still function but does not function as effectively since some blood will be flowing backwards across the leaky valves and the heart will have to work harder to perfuse the body.

A thrombus in a coronary artery can block blood flow leading to ischemia and tissue death. In some cases, this dying tissue can interfere with the heart's conduction system and cause fibrillation in which the heart does not pump correctly and cannot move blood. If this occurs it can result in sudden death.

The fluid that fills the pericardial sac protects the heart from friction as it is beating, and as it get moved around by the diaphragm expanding and contracting.

systole: heart contraction diastole: heart relaxation stroke volume: the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each heartbeat cardiac cycle: the events of one complete heartbeat

Systole and diastole usually apply to the ventricles. "Systole" is understood as ventricular contraction, and "diastole" as ventricular relaxation.

Unlike other muscles in the body, the heart contracts spontaneously with no external signal causing muscle cells to depolarize and begin the process of contraction.

The intrinsic conduction system of the heart is responsible for generating and conducting the signal for each heartbeat through the cardiac tissue in a specific way so that the heart beats correctly and propels blood forward throughout the body. The conduction system consists of the SA node, the AV node, the AV bundle, the left and right bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers.

The lub-dub sound of the heartbeat is made by valves closing. Specifically the first heart sound "lub" is made by the AV valves (the mitral and tricuspid) closing, and the second heart sound "dub" is made by the semilunar valves (the aortic and pulmonic) closing.

Heart rate will increase in response to blood loss, sympathetic stimulation (stress or fear), and exercise with increase oxygen demand.

The innermost tunica interna is made up of lining endothelial cells. It is only a few cells thick, and serves as the barrier between the blood and the vessel. The middle tunica media is mostly made up of smooth muscle. It is much thicker in arteries than in veins and can constrict the vessel thereby increasing pressure and diverting bloodflow. The outermost layer is the tunic externa or tunica adventitia. It is made up of connective tissue and serves as protection and support for the vessel.

Capillary walls are made up of endothelium and this is usually only one cell layer thick. It is important that capillary walls are so thin because this is the main site of gas and nutrient exchange throughout the circulatory system and body tissues which happens via simple diffusion across the capillary walls.

Artery walls are so much thicker than veins because the blood in arteries is under high pressure. This means that the vessels need to be stronger in order to transport the blood and not get damaged in the process. Additionally, arteries need to be able to expand and recoil as new blood is forced into them with each heartbeat. The thick muscle of the tunica media helps them do this.

Venous return is helped via one way valves that prevent backflow, the contraction of nearby skeletal muscle the propels blood back to the heart, and the negative intrathoracic pressure that occurs every time we inhale that pulls blood into the right side of the heart.

The two exceptions to this rule are the pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs (and the corresponding pulmonary veins that carry oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart) and the umbilical arteries that carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus back to the placenta (and the corresponding umbilical vein that carries oxygenated blood to the fetus).

Wrist: Blood starts in the left ventricle and exits into the arch of the aorta. From here it enters the brachiocephalic artery and then the right subclavian artery. As it travels through the armpit and into the upper arm the blood passes from the subclavian to the right axillary and then right brachial arteries. Last, the blood flows through the right ulnar artery until it reaches the wrist. To get back to the heart the blood would first travel through the right ulnar vein and then to the right brachial veins. Like with the arteries, the brachial veins turn into the right axillary and subclavian veins and finally reach the right brachial cephalic vein. Lastly the blood would enter the superior vena cava and reenter the heart in the right atrium. Foot: Blood would leave the left ventricle and enter the arch of the aorta, and then continue descending through the thoracic and abdominal aortas. Finally, around the level of L4 the blood would branch off into the right common iliac artery and then continue on to the right external iliac artery. The blood would next travel through the right common femoral artery and the superficial femoral artery until it reached the right popliteal artery. From here it would split off into the right anterior tibial artery and finally would reach the dorsum of the foot via the right dorsalis pedis artery. The blood would then return to the heart via the anterial tibial veins which empty into the right popliteal vein. Blood then travels to the right femoral vein, the right external iliac vein and the right common iliac vein. This then merges with the left common iliac vein to form the inferior vena cava which empties into the right atrium.

The circle of Willis is a circle of connecting blood vessels at the base of the brain that connects the anterior and posterior blood supplies. This is important because it provides alternative routes for blood flow to areas of the brain should a vessels be blocked or damaged anywhere.

The hepatic portal circulation functions to ensure that all blood draining the digestive system, and carrying nutrients from a recently digested meal, will pass through the liver before entering the rest of the circulation. This allows the liver to store nutrients and detoxify substances before they are exposed to the rest of the body. This circulation is strange because it consists of veins feeding the capillaries of an organ which is usually a job of the arteries.

The liver and lungs are bypassed in fetal circulation because their function is unnecessary since the mother's liver and lungs are performing their functions for them. The ductus venosus shunts blood away from the fetal liver, and the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus shunt blood away from the fetal lungs. Of the three vessels in the umbilical cord, it is the umbilical vein that carriers oxygen and nutrient rich blood.

The pulse is caused by the expansion and recoil of arteries as blood is pushed into them with each heartbeat.

Wrist: radial artery in from of ear: superficial temporal artery side of neck: carotid artery groin: femoral artery back of knee: popliteal artery

blood pressure: the pressure that blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels systolic pressure: the pressure in the arteries at the peak of ventricular contraction diastolic pressure: the pressure in the arteries when the ventricles are relaxing

Blood pressure keeps the blood circulating continuously, even between heartbeats.

Cardiac output is increase with increase heart rate or stroke volume, peripheral resistance is increased with vasoconstriction which can be a result of the autonomic nervous system of signals from the kidneys.

When you hemorrhage blood pressure drops due to loss of volume but the body can compensate well for this and bring blood pressure back to normal limits. This is because the normal drop in blood pressure that would result from volume loss is counteracted by increase vasoconstriction and heart rate that occur as the body tries to compensate for the lost blood. Blood pressure is usually highest when you are lying down and lowest when you are standing.

A capillary with fenestrations or intercellular clefts allows passage of fluid and small molecules, while capillaries that lack these modifications are regulated to transport mechanisms such as diffusion across the capillary membrane and exocytosis from endothelial cells.

Varicose veins are twisted and dilated veins usually occurring the leg when valves weaken and give away. They can result from prolonged standing with pooling of blood in the lower extremities and inefficient venous return from inactivity or pressure on the veins.

Hypertension is sustained, elevated blood pressure and atherosclerosis is the build up of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in the artery walls, causing them to narrow. Prolonged hypertension can damage the interiors of vessel walls and cause tears which makes it easier for atherosclerosis to occur. Hypertension is a silent killer because it has few early symptoms and many people may not know that they have hypertension because they feel fine. Exercising, reducing intake of salt and fats, and reducing alcohol consumption can all help prevent later cardiovascular disease.

If her left ventricle has failed, her heart cannot effectively pump blood out into the rest of the body. As a result, her skin is pale and cold because it is not getting enough blood flow to it, and her lungs become congested and edematous since blood cannot be effectively pumped out and so it gets backed up.

In the face of volume loss, her vessels are constricting to maintain peripheral resistance and her heart is beating faster to keep up a high cardiac output. Since mean arterial pressure = cardiac output*total peripheral resistance, these two compensatory mechanisms will maintain blood pressure within normal limits until the volume loss becomes too great.

Parts of the left ventricle, specifically parts of the lateral left border and the posterior border will become ischemic and may die of the left circumflex artery is blocked.

His blood pressure should be chronically elevated because hypersecretion of ADH causes excess water retention by the kidneys, leading to perpetually high blood pressure.