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Humanists

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those who studied the humanities consisting of grammar, history, poetry, and rhetoric. They searched out manuscripts written in Greek and Latin, ones most authentic. They emphasized education and thought a person should live a meaningful life

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Perspective

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Art technique used by Renaissance painters that involves making distant objects smaller than those in the foreground and arranging them to create an illusion of depth on a flat canvas; created to make more pictures life like ical and artistic movement; it altered how Europeans viewed themselves and their world

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Renaissance

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Movement following the Middle Ages that centered on revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome; rebirth of philosophical and artistic movement

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Isabella d'Este

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A great patron to the arts who filled her palace with paintings and sculptures by the finest Renaissance artists in Mantua

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Francisco Petrarch

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One of the first humanists and was a famous scholar and teacher, his sonnet Laura is considered one of the greatest love poems in literature, wanted to continue work of classical writers, he wanted to live fully on earth and not reach for fame but salvation

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Niccolo Machiavelli

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A French diplomat and historian; he wrote the essay The Prince, looked to ancient Romans as models, and displayed less tension between spiritual and earthly quests

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Leonardo da Vinci

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An architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, and scientist; made sketches and his anatomy helped him draw realistic figures; used math to recognize space in paintings; well-known for painting the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper

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Michaelangelo

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A brilliant painter who is known for creating the frescoes on the ceilings in the Sistine Chapel, sculpted biblical figures and wrote poetry

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Johannes Gutenburg

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The first European to use moveable type to print books; he used his printing press to print copies of the Bible

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Desiderius Erasmus

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A Dutch scholar who wrote The Praise of Folly criticizing Christians and the Church's interpretation of the Bible; entered a monastery but later wanted to study how Christianity and classical civilization could come together; most influential humanist of northern Europe

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Thomas More

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An English Humanist who contrasted life in Europe with his description of an imaginary, ideal society with a civilized government and no feud between peoples for private land ownership, wrote Utopia

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William Shakespeare

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Most widely known author who wrote many famous plays, strong with literature, the biggest literary figure of the time, transformed well-known stories into dramas; wrote showing human personality and emotions in Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and Macbeth.

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Indulgences

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pardons from punishment for sin instituted by Pope Leo X who sent a monk named Johann Tetzel to sell them, had originally been a reward for pious deeds

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Sects

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new religious groups that appeared in Germany and Switzerland who did not form organized churches, authority, discipline, membership, or rules; few people gathering with a preacher

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Predestination

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Belief that at the beginning of time God would decide who would be saved, it put a great effort on self-discipline emphasized by John Calvin; those predestined were called "the elect"

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Theocracy

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government ruled by religious leaders who claimed God's authority; Geneva, city of Calvinism where people were under great discipline for "the elect"

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Reformation

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Religious revolution that split the church in Western Europe and created a number of new churches; humanists lost sight of the spiritual mission of the Catholic Church; started because the popes had too much political power and humanists wanted a new emphasis on personal faith and spirituality

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Martin Luther

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A monk who developed beliefs called Lutheranism, he wrote the 95 Theses; believed inner faith in God saved a sinner and not indulgences, people receive salvation through the grace of God; claimed Bible to be sole religious authority

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Henry VIII

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caused break between England and the Roman Catholic Church even though he followed Luther's teachings; wanted a divorce from his wife Catherine of Aragon because she could not give him a son but the Church would not grant him the divorce. He withdrew England from the Catholic Church and began the Anglican Church which he was the head of so he could get divorced

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John Calvin

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Founded a Protestant Church in Switzerland that had a strong following; published a set of beliefs called The Institutes of Christian Religion; emphasized predestination; carried out works of Zwingli

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Huguenots

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French people including high ranked nobles who converted to Calvinism; Catholic French monarchs considered them a threat to national unity

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Johann Tetzel

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monk sent by Pope Leo X to raise funds in the northern german states using indulgences

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Diet of Worms

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special meeting of the empire's rulers which Luther had to appear before to abandon his ideas; influenced emperor to declared Luther an outlaw and ban the printing and selling of his works

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Anne Boleyn

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woman Henry VIII wanted to divorce for; beheaded because she was accused of adultery

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Catherine of Aragon

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wife of Henry VIII that caused the separation of the Catholic Church and England because she could not give Henry VIII a son

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Huldrych Zwingli

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Vicar at the cathedral in Zurich who shared many ideas about the church doctrine with Martin Luther; called for religious reform in Switzerland; did not believe in images in churches

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Edict of Nantes

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proclamation issued by King Henry IV giving Huguenots freedom of worship and some political rights

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95 Theses

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Statements about indulgences written by Martin Luther that tells the people that salvation does not come from indulgences but from faith in God

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Defender of the Faith

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The title given to Henry VIII by the pope; Henry defended the church against Luther's teachings

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Counter-Reformation

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Attempt by the Catholic Church, following the Reformation to return the church to an emphasis on spiritual matters; it allowed the church to make its doctrine more clear

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Council of Trent

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Meeting of church leaders in the 1500's to clearly define Catholic doctrines for the Counter-Reformation, acted to end abuses of indulgences and tighten discipline with the clergy, emphasized needs for ceremonies and priests, and free will

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Jesuits

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Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, they further strengthened and supported the church and formed new religious orders; recognized by Pope Paul II as official order of the Catholic Church

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Ignatius de Loyola

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Founded the Jesuits in 1534, which became the official order of the Catholic Church; believed salvation could be achieved by doing good deeds; his followers took vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience to the pope

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Inquisition

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sought to eliminate heresy by seeking out and punishing heretics

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Pope Paul III

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Pope from 1534 to 1549 who worked to revive a spiritual outlook in the Catholic Church, brought Inquisition of Rome; summoned Council of Trent; recognized Jesuits as official order of the Catholic Church

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Broadsides

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Single printed news sheets sold to the public

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Almanacs

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most common books which published predictions about the weather and prospects for growing crops, contained calendars, maps, and medical advice

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Standard of Living

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Measure of the quality of life that can be affected by the environment, health, home life, income, and working conditions

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Printing Press

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movable type invented by Johannes Gutenberg to print things faster

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Witch Craft

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wise people a part of this belief were called "good witches" and if bad things happened they were "bad witches", bad witches made a pact with the devil and it determined bad things in your life

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Scientific Method

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Method of inquiry that includes carefully conducted experiments and mathematical calculations to verify the results of experiments; scientists observe, check, and repeat

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Geocentric Theory

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Theory according to Ptolemy that the Earth is the center of the universe, "Earth centered"

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Heliocentric Theory

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Theory according to Copernicus that the sun is the center of the universe, "sun-centered"

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Roger Bacon

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An English philosopher and scientist who studied at Oxford and Paris, leading scholar of his time who focused on scientific experimentation rather than religious ideas; became know as Doctor Mirabilis, wonderful teacher

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Francis Bacon

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English scientist and philosopher wrote a book that outlined his new system of knowledge (Novum Organum), believed scientific theories could only be discovered by observation

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Nicolaus Copernicus

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Polish scientist who began to abandon Ptolemy's geocentric theory and developed the heliocentric theory that the sun is the center of the universe

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Johannes Kepler

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A German astronomer who tested Copernicus's theory and proved it correct and published his laws of planetary motion

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Galileo Galilei

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An Italian scientist who invented the telescope and saw the moon and sun and other planets and proved everything does not revolve around Earth, he published his findings

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Isaac Newton

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English scientist who created a gravity law, his work had a huge impact on science of his time

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Andreas Versalius

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A Flemish scientist who pioneered the study of anatomy, published On the Fabric of the Human Body from his own studies of the body

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Rene Descartes

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French philosopher and mathematician who was a leader of the scientific revolution, he published the Discourse of Method and stated that all assumptions had to be proven by facts, he developed a method of questions and his studies led to the law of refraction

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Robert Boyle

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English-Irish scientist who helped pioneer the modern science of chemistry, showed how the composition of matter and how it changes relates and how temperature and pressure affect the space that gas occupies

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Compass

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Navigational instrument created in the 1300's that uses a magnetized piece of metal that points to the north

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Joint Stock Company

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group of individual merchants who joined together for a new kind of business organization during the Commercial Revolution to raise large sums of money from investors to finance exploration

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Mercantilism

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states that whatever country had the most gold and silver it was the wealthiest so they tried to have as much as they can

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Balance of Trade

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a country received more gold and silver from other nations than it paid them. A country could reduce the amount of good coming from other countries, encourage imports, and control overseas materials

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Tariffs

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import taxes on goods

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Subsidies

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grants of money to the government from more exports that helped business people start new industries allowed them to build ships

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Commercial Revolution

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period of changes in ways to improve business; value of money was changed, making trade and banking better

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Astrolabe

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Instrument used to calculate latitude by looking at the stars

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Triangular Trade

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slave trade made of three parts, merchants sent cotton goods, weapons, and liquor to Africa for slaves, then the slaves were shipped across the Atlantic to the Americas where they were sold for good on the plantations, and then the products were shipped to Europe

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Prince Henry

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responsible for Portugal's interest in exploration, known as "The Navigator," his goal was to find gold for Portugal so he gathered many of Europe's best geographers and navigators and went along the west coast of Africa and claimed Azores for Portugal

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Bartolomeu Diaz

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sailed around Cape of Good Hope at southern tip of Africa and found route to Indian Ocean

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Vasco da Gama

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Sailed eastward across the Indian Ocean and landed in India, later made a 2nd voyage and came back to Portugal with valuable goods

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Columbus

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thought a shorter route to Asia could be found by sailing westward instead of sailing around the tip of Africa; King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella financed his trip; set sail on Nina, Pinta and the Santa Maria, landed in San Salvador and found islands off coast of India calling them the Indies

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Magellan

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Portuguese navigator who proved the New World was not a part of Asia and made the first world-round voyage with his men

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Columbian Exchange

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Massive exchange of goods, plants, animals, and disease that took place between the West and Eastern Hemispheres following Columbus's voyage

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Treaty of Tordesillas

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Agreement between Spain and Portugal that moved west the line determining the land each country could claim in the Atlantic; Spain acquired most of Central and South America and the Philippines and Portugal claimed lands on the eastern and western coasts of Africa, lands in Asia and the East Indies and Brazil

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Amerigo Vespucci

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Italian navigator who made several expeditions crossing the Atlantic, did not think the new land he saw was part of Asia, encouraged mapmaker to call New World America

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Middle Passage

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Second stage of the triangular trade system, which involved the shipping of slaves across the Atlantic to the Americas

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Pope Alexander VI

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Pope who gave newly discovered lands west of the line to Spain

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Isabella and Ferdinand

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King and Queen of Spain who financed Columbus' voyage

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Vasco Nunez de Balboa

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Made an overland crossing of the Isthmus of Panama and made it clear Asia was not part of the New World

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Viceroys

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Spanish officials who represented monarchy in Spain's colonial empire and reported to the Council of the Indies in Spain

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Guerrilla Warfare

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Military technique relying on swift raids by small bands of soldiers, used by William of Orange against the Spanish army

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Ponce de Leon

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A Spanish explorer who sailed northward to what is now Florida

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Hernan Cortes

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He invaded Mexico and seized the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II, captured and destroyed the great Aztec city of Tenochtitlan

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Montezuma

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Aztec ruler when Cortez invaded Mexico

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Francisco Pizarro

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Led 180 men and 37 horses on an expedition, traveled the Isthmus of Panama ti capital of Inca Empire and claimed land from Ecuador to Chile for Spain

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Charles V

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One of the greatest Spanish kings and also Holy Roman Emperor, religious wars under his rule made him realize he could not rule two places at once so he gave up his throne and divided the lands among family members; also defended Europe against Ottoman Turks

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Philip II

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Son of Charles V and Holy Roman Emperor who was a devout Catholic and defended Catholicism against all its enemies and brought glory to Spain; wanted to strengthen Spain's hold as Europe's leading people so he took control of the government

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William of Orange

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Led a revolt against Philip using guerilla warfare; under his leadership, the northern provinces declared their independance from Spain

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The Renaissance began because there was an interest in ancient Greek and Roman literature and life. Trade made an interest in knowledge. It was a rebirth of philosophical and artistic movement that caused the era to flourish.

answer

why did the Renaissance begin and what characterized the thought of this era?

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Art in the middle ages reflects religious values rather than human individuality. Renaissance art combined religious themes with humanistic values of the era. They centered realistic human beings in their works.

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How did Renaissance art differ from the art of the Middle ages?

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The Roman Catholic Church lost sight of its spiritual mission.. Popes acted as political leaders instead of an example of moral leadership. Northern humanists sought a new emphasis on personal faith and spirituality but the Catholic Church did not listen and humanists urged unhappy people to withdraw from the church.

answer

What developments led to the Reformation?

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Lutheranism was a more simple and direct faith which many people wanted. German rulers began to establish churches within their states.

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What factors led to the spread of Protestantism?

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No, he just felt it was necessary to challenge certain practices that he believed were unnecessary or wrong.

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Did Luther plan to start a new church?

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He wanted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon and the Church would not grant it to him.

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What were the circumstances that led Henry VIII to break from the Catholic Church

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The Church realized that they needed to tighten the church's positions on matters of doctrine. They acted to end the abuses of indulgences, tighten discipline with the clergy, and emphasize needs for ceremonies and priests, and free will

answer

How did the Catholic Church respond to the Protestant Reformation?

question

There were many different churches in Europe. There was also a strong interest in education so reading became important. Reformation led to an increase in the power of national governments and a decrease in the power of the pope.

answer

What were the results of the Reformation and Counter Reformation?

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They started the theory that the sun was the center of the universe.

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How did people like Galileo, Copernicus, and Kepler challenge traditional thought in their day?

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The Church teaches that the Earth is the center of the universe.

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What did the Church teach and most people believe about the Earth, Sun, planets etc.?

question

It encouraged colonies to colonize overseas lands that were rich in gold, silver, and raw materials that could not be produced at home. This way the country's wealth would remain with its own people.

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What role did mercantilism plan in the colonies?

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Good News, Gold, and Glory

answer

What were the motives of the early explorers?

question

Intendants

answer

monarchy's representatives in the provinces that made up France; took away administrative and financial power from regional governors and military leaders and concentrated it to the king

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divine rights of kings

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believed by Louis XIV that God chose the person to rule the nation, "L'etat, c'est moi" ("I am the state")

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balance of power

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countries work to have equal strength in order to prevent any one country from dominating others; taken into consideration because Louis wanted to gather allies against France

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Henry IV

answer

King of France in 1589, had been Huguenot and converted to Catholicism to bring peace and unity to France; issued Edict of Nantes; worked to regain government power and put Duke of Sully in charge of taxes

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Cardinal Richelieu

answer

chosen by Louis XIII to be his chief minister; wanted to make king supreme in France and France supreme in Europe; worked to take power away from nobles and political rights away from Huguenots

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Thirty Years' War

answer

began in 1618 in Prague; Protestant rebellion against Holy Roman Empire, France, Denmark, and Sweden wanted to weaken the empire and habsburgs; Richelieu worked to keep war going but kept France out for a while; 1648 France and allies reached their goal and signed Treaty of Westphalia

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Louis XIV

answer

king of France in 1643, ruled for 72 years; built palace in Versailles and moved French government there, was able to control nobles from there (intendants); believed in divine right of kings; adopted sun as personal symbol (Sun King)

question

Colbert

answer

expert in finance chosen by Louis XVI to help the government; followed strong policies to promote economic development in France; aimed to increase French industry at home and build trade abroad, granted subsides and high tariffs

question

Versailles

answer

where Louis XIV built a palace where he moved his government and could control his nobles; represented the grandeur and power of the monarchy and of France

question

"Sun King"

answer

Louis XIV because his power was just like the sun's rays that reached far and wide

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1648 Treaty of Westphalia

answer

Treaty signed after Thirty Years' War giving France the land of Alsace, independance to the Netherlands and Switzerland, and German princes independence of the Holy Roman Empire

question

Inside: built a palace in Versailles, chose adviser for the government, and did away with the Edict of Nantes ending France's policy of tolerance for Protestants Outside: fought 4 wars to extend France's territory east to the Rhine River to form another natural border, fought the Netherlands, England, and Sweden because they formed alliances against France, and fought War of the Spanish Succession to determine who would become the next king of Spain

answer

What steps did Louis XIV take both inside his country and outside to make France stronger?

question

Michael Romanov

answer

elected by the Russian national assembly to be czar; grandnephew of Ivan IV and his family was large and powerful in rule for 300 years in Russia making it a leading European power

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Peter the Great

answer

takes throne at age 10, autocratic; wanted to westernize Europe because it was isolated from the rest of Europe; get warm water ports and end landlock; strengthen military for war with Sweden which gained them territory for St.Petersburg, expand borders, centralize royal power they were controlled by the Ottoman empire so they needed an alliance

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Westernization

answer

adoption of Western ideas, technology, and culture (art and education)

question

system of nobility

answer

individual noble's rank depended on the performance of government service

question

Catherine the Great

answer

autocratic; organizes country into sections; wrote laws down and let people know what they were; worked to bring Russia into full European culture; fought and defeated Ottoman Empire for made land (Black Sea and Poland) state education for boys and girls

question

By the leadership of Peter the great and Catherine the Great. Peter gained access to the Baltic Sea where he built a new city, St. Petersburg which was closer to the nations of western Europe. Catherine gained control of the northern shore of the Black Sea and Poland.

answer

How did Russia overcome its isolation from the rest of Europe?

question

Peter improved the army and started a war with Sweden and won gaining territory on the east coast of the Gulf of Finland allowing access to the Baltic Sea. He moved the capital to St. Petersburg closer to the nations of western Europe which made it capable to westernize Europe. He created the appearance of the people and modernized the army and government administration.

answer

How did Peter the Great use his power to change Russia?

question

Maria Theresa

answer

Charles VI's daughter who inherited Austria and other Habsburg lands; her variety of lands led to conflicts of language, religion, and nationality

question

Pragmatic Sanction

answer

document Charles VI urged European rulers to accept to allow Maria to rule and inherit to lands

question

Frederick William I

answer

succeeded the great ELector and gained the title of the King of Prussia where Hohenzollern lands in northern Germany were unified under the rule of Prussia; he ended lavish spending and spend money to make Prussia stronger; made Prussian army the most efficient high force in Europe; created efficient system of government

question

Frederick the Great

answer

succeeded Frederick I, put in prison to become more interested in military and government affairs because he wrote poetry, played the flute, and read philosophy; tried to escape Prussia but failed and turned out to be a better and stronger ruler than his father

question

Diplomatic Revolution

answer

reversal of alliances; Austria and Great Britain had been allied against French but now Great Britain allied itself with Prussia to keep Prussia from becoming too powerful and France joined with Austria and Russia

question

Seven Years' War

answer

European war lasting from 1756 to 1763, fighting began in North America where it was called the French and Indian War and then moved to European colonies; Prussia was supported by Great Britain and Austria formed alliances with France and Russia; war ended with no clear winner; treaty signed in 1763 that confirmed Prussia's hold on Silesia, and Treaty of Paris gave most of France's North American colonies to Britain

question

Gentry

answer

landowners who had social position but no titles, one of the two classes of the House of Commons; sometimes younger sons of nobles who could not inherit their father's titles or positions became gentry

question

burgesses

answer

merchants and professional people from towns and cities, second class of the House of Commons

question

Bloody Mary

answer

oldest daughter of Henry VIII and took throne in 1553 reigning first queen of England; determined to make England a Catholic nation and wanted to destroy Anglican Church and the clergy that did not follow Catholic Church's laws, had 300 people burned at the stake (hence her name)

question

Elizabeth I

answer

Bloody Mary's half sister who became queen after she died; politician who used monarchy and Parliament to prevent conflict and strengthen Protestantism

question

Mary Queen of Socs

answer

Elizabeth's closest Catholic relative to succeed her and having a Catholic queen delayed the plans of Philip II of Spain to invade England; fled to England from Scotland and Elizabeth put her in prison, Mary plotted with Philip to kill Elizabeth and seize the throne and when she found out, she ordered Mary's death

question

Spanish Armada

answer

fleet of ships Philip launched toward England in 1588 called the Invincible Armada, was challenged by the English and they defeated Spain

question

Puritans

answer

separatists who objected to the fact that the Anglican Church kept some Catholic practices. they wanted to purify the new church even more

question

James I

answer

son of Mary Queen of Scots who ruled England in 1603, ruled England and Scotland and even though he ruled Scotland, English people thought he did not fully understand their parliamentary system; believed in divine right of kings and tried to intervene in the House of Commons; supported Anglican Church and only agreed to a new translation of the Bible (Kings James version), parliament objected his use of raising money and alliance with Spain

question

She wanted to destroy the Anglican Church and any of the clergy that did not follow the Catholic Church's laws but some did not want to change their ways.

answer

Why were so many people opposed to the rule of Mary Tudor?

question

Elizabeth I used the monarchy and parliament to prevent conflict and to strengthen Protestantism. She was one of the greatest rulers in England and changed England from an island kingdom to a world power.

answer

How did Elizabeth I rule England? What was her greatest accomplishment?

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