Sociology of Sport Review #2 – Flashcards
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Define deviance
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occurs when a person's ideas, traits, or actions are perceived by others to fall outside the normal range of acceptance in a society... is tricky to study because norms take different forms, vary in importance, change over time, differ from one social world to another
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Identify challenges faced when studying deviance in sports
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-The types and causes of deviance are so diverse that no single theory can explain them all -Actions accepted in sports may be defined as deviant in other spheres of society, and actions accepted in society may be defined as deviant in sports -Deviance in sports often involves overconformity to norms, rather than rejecting or not conforming to them -Training and performance in sports is based on such new forms of science and technology that people have not yet developed norms to guide and evaluate much of what occurs today in sports
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Explain the absolutist approach to deviance in sports
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truth based, deviance assumes that social norms are based on essential principles that constitute an unchanging foundation for identifying good and evil and distinguishing right from wrong. According to this approach, all norms represent ideals and whenever an idea, trait, or action departs from an ideal, it is deviant. Is used by fans, media, and general public
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Explain the constructionist approach to deviance in sports
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interaction based, assumes that deviance occurs when ideas, traits, and actions fall outside the socially determined boundaries that people use to decide what is acceptable and unacceptable in a society or social world. 1)There is a range of acceptance associated with nearly all norms 2) deviance is constructed by people who negotiate boundaries, ideas traits, or actions that fall outside their range of acceptance are deviant 3) people with power negotiate boundaries 4) most ideas traits and actions ina social world fall into a normally accepted range. This approach is based on a combination of cultural, interactionist, and structural theories in sociology
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Define the sport ethic
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used to guide and evaluate attitudes and actions in the social world of power and performance sports, professional overconformity
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Identify the norms of the sport ethic
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-Athletes are dedicated to the game above all other things -Athletes strive for distinction -Athletes accept risks and play through pain -Athletes accept no obstacles in the pursuit of success in sports
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deviant overconformity
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consists of supranormal ideas, traits, and actions that indicate an uncritical acceptance of norm and a failure to recognize any limits to following norms, such as playing despite broken bones, is a lot harder than deviant underconformity
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deviant underconformity
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consists of subnormal ideas, traits, and actions that indicate a rejection of norms or ignorance about their existence such as bar fighting, sexual assault
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Identify the athletes most likely to overconform to the norms of the sport ethic
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Overconformity is pretty common. Athletes who are obsessed with sports with overconform. Athletes who will overconform will be proud of their athletic history even if they are in pain now. Athletes who are willing to put their bodies on the line are seen in a positive light. Overconformity is proof of their dedication and commitment and it gives them their identity
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Understand the research findings on the major forms of deviance in sports and identify examples that do not involve athletes
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-Most research focuses only on deviant underconformity. Deviant overconformity isn't researched because it challenges the great spot myth. Athletes create their own informal norms. They will push the limits as far as they can. -Cheating, corruption, harassment- 1) new rules=new ways to be deviant 2) surveillance tech catches more rule violeations 3) personal stakes like status or financial rewards. -Governing bodies are often weak and do not enforce rules well. People who run sport organizations lack experience, transparency, and accountability. -Gambling- gambling websites, pay refs to alter games -Hazing- long accepted process. Not very well studied because it is a private process that reaffirms hierarchical status
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Explain why performance-enhancing substance use is so prevalent among athletes today
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athletes are able to accept the norms of the sports ethic, their dedication to winning at all costs, gain reaffirmation of their identities, use them to survive and succeed in elite sports. Usually occur among the most dedicated and hard working athletes. They accept societies norms about dedication, working hard, ignoring pain, and overconforming to reach their goals. They use them to survive and succeed
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Outline the phases in a professional sport career
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-1st-no special substances (ordinary world products) -2nd- discovery of legal products (B12, iron) -3rd- products to do the job (anabolic) -4th- products taken to win, doping to win -5th- products taken to forget and escape like alcohol or sleeping pills
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when do performance-enhancing substances become important in that career
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-3rd and 4th most important because it is the most intense time in someone's sporting career
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Understand why the current system of drug testing in sports will not eliminate the use of performance enhancing substances
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-will not eliminate the use of performance enhancing substances because it has created a cat and mouse game where athletes try to stay one step ahead of the testers. This approach continues to be used because it serves the purposes of sponsors and sport organizations -Also a part of sports because therapies and supplements are needed to recover
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Outline and evaluate alternatives to the current war on doping in sports
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-critically examine the deep hypocrisy involved in elite power and performance sports -establish rules clearly indicating that certain risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports -establish a harm reduction approach in which athletes are not allowed to play until certified as well, not simply able to compete, by two independent physicians or medical personnel -establish health based guidelines and codes of ethics for sport scientists, coaches, managers, and those who set training and competition schedules -make drug and substance education a key part of health education programs -establish health and injury education programs
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Define violence
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-is the use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction
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Define aggression
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-refers to verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person
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Define intimidation
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-refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression. Like aggression, is used to dominate or control others
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Discuss historical trends for on-the-field and spectator violence
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-Greeks, romans, Mayans, and Aztecs all had ritual games resulting in death. Tournaments in Medieval Europe were designed to train men for war which resulted in death and destruction. Animal fighting also frequently occurred. As actions and emotional expression are more regulated now players and spectators view controlled violence in sports as exciting
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Brutal body contact
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includes actions common in certain sports and accepted by athletes as part of sport participation. Ex: collisions, hits, tackles
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Borderline violence
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includes actions that violate the rules of the game but are accepted by most players and coaches as consistent with the norms of the sport ethic and as useful competitive strategies. Ex: brush back pitch in baseball, using a knee or an elbow
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Quasi-criminal violence
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includes actions that violate the formal rules of the game, public laws, and even informal norms among players. Most athletes disapprove of this violence. Ex: cheap shots, late hits, sucker punches, flagrant fouls
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Criminal violence
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includes actions that are clearly outside the law to the point that athletes condemn them and law enforcement officials prosecute them as crimes. Ex: assaults during or after a game that appear to be premeditated or severe enough to kill or seriously maim a player
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Know the connection between violence in sports and deviant overconformity
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is related to the identity insecurities of athletes in high performance sports. They know that their identities and status as team members must be regularly reaffirmed through their actions on the field. Therefore, they often take extreme measures to prove themselves, even if it involves violence. Violence reinforces feelings of self-worth by eliciting acceptance from other athletes
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Know the connection between violence in sports and commercialization
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is not the primary cause of violence in sports. Has expanded opportunities to play certain contact sports in which violence occurs, and media coverage makes these sports and the violence they contain more visible than ever before. Violence in sports is not caused by commercialization. Culture has to change for violence to be reduced.
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Know the connection between violence in sports and masculinity
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participation in sports proves masculinity. Sports are only played by "real men" and violence earns them respects and creates identity. Dominant gender ideology in many cultures links manhood with the ability to do violence, but there is no similar link between womanhood and violence. Therefore, female athletes who engage in violence do not receive the same rewards that men do
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Understand when and how athletes learn to use violence as a strategy in non-contact sports
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uses intimidation, violence is rare
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Understand when and how athletes learn to use violence as a strategy in men's sports
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men in heavy contact sports often learn to use intimidation, aggression, and violence as strategies to achieve competitive success. These athletes routinely disapprove of quasi-criminal and criminal violence, but they accept brutal body contact and borderline violence as long as it occurs within the rules of the game
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Understand when and how athletes learn to use violence as a strategy in women's sports
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as women compete at higher levels, they often become similar to men in how they embrace the sport ethic and use it to frame their identities as athletes. Like men, they are willing to dedicate themselves to the game, take risks, make sacrifices, pay the price, continue playing despite pain and injury, and overcome barriers in pursuit of their dreams. However, it is rare for them to link toughness, physicality, and aggression to what it means in society. Therefore, at this time, women's contact sports are less violent than men's contact sports. Women are more tolerant of rule violations and aggressive actions on the playing field.
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Describe the consequences of violence for athletes
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rates of disabling injuries vary by sport, but they are high enough in many sports to constitute a serious health issue. The normal brutal body contact and borderline violence in contact and collision sports regularly cause arthritis, concussions, brain trauma, bone fractures, torn ligaments, and other injuries
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understand the implications of brain trauma for athletes and for certain sports
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CTE- is a neurodegenerative disease with symptoms similar to early on-set dementia. These include many types of cognitive impairment related to memory, reasoning, language and communication, problem solving, emotional control, and the ability to focus and pay attention. Evidence of CTE has been found in football players, boxers, hockey players, and soccer players
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Know the conditions under which athletes may learn to control their violent actions off the field
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if the social world formed around a sport promotes a mind set and norms emphasizing non-violence, self-control, respect for self and others, physical fitness, patience, responsibility, and humility, then athletes may learn to control violent behavior off the field. Those most likely to learn this seem to be young men who lack structured challenges and firm guidance as they navigate their way through lives in which there are many incentives to engage in violence.
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Know the conditions when their sport experiences may contribute to off-the-field violence, such as assault and sexual assault
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Heavy contact sports often emphasize hostility, physical domination, and a willingness to use one's body as a weapon. This is consistent with research showing that sport participation, especially for young men in contact sports, is associated with fighting off the field. Violence is an effective strategy to prove manhood and dominance. Also, they can see women as groupies who can be exploited without consequences. -Sport participation does not automatically teach people to control violence nor does it make them more violent in other settings
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Violence among media viewers
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most people watch sports on tv in their homes. They may express emotions and become angry at certain points, but we don't know much about when and why people express anger through violence directed at friends and family members at home. Most people who watch media sports outside the home restrict their emotional expressions to verbal comments mostly made towards players, coaches, officials
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Violence at venues
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occurred in the past and much of it would make crowd violence today seem rare and tame by comparison. With the emergence of modern sports, violence among sport spectators decreased, but it remained common by today's standards
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Spectator violence in North America
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Most spectators at North America sport venues limit their expressive actions to loud cheering, stomping feet, waving objects, and verbally taunting. Fights do occur, fans say nasty things, and sometimes objects are thrown. But most cases of violence inside stadiums and arenas involve individuals and small groups of fans; they are not planned or politically motivated
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Post event violence
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in North America, the most destructive episodes of violence occur in riots after sport events, especially those for which the stakes are high. Celebratory riots occur among fans of victorious teams, whereas frustration riots occur among fans of teams suffering defeats and usually occur outside the stadium
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Frustration riots
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are rare or less common than celebratory riots. When a team loses, fans are more likely to deal with the disappointment on their own
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Identify strategies that could be used to control venue violence and post-event violence
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-crowd size and the standing or seating patterns of spectators, composition of the crowd in terms of age, sex, social class, racial/ethnic mix, importance and meaning of the event for spectators, history of the relationship between teams and spectators, crowd control strategies (police, dogs, cameras), monitor alcohol consumption, know and respect the rights of spectators, neutral location, controlled alcohol consumption
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Discuss the incidence of terrorism at sport events and explain how and why terrorism influences sport events today
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-is a special form of violence designed to intimidate a target population of people for the purpose of achieving political or social goals -It can occur anywhere, but it occurs most frequently in divided societies and situations where an oppressed population has an oppositional political agenda. Unlike most warfare, it target civilians to create pervasive fear in a target population. The intent is that coverage will spread and sustain fear and make people feel that the fabric of their social order is being torn apart
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Describe the two-sex classification system, and explain how it impacts the meaning and organization of sports as well as who participates in sports
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In this system, people assume that that all humans can be classified into one of two sex categories: male or female. These categories are often viewed in terms of physiological and psychological difference. Is common in societies where men control most power and resources. This system is a reflection of social and cultural ideas rather than biological facts
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Explain how orthodox gender ideology has influenced sports and how sports have influenced gender ideology
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-Traditional way of thinking. Can be disproved through scientific evidence; the human body is complex so it can't be divided into 2 categories. 2 category system is a reflection of social and cultural ideas rather than biological facts. Influences sports: -male dominated: ability and performance qualifications are associated with manhood and men -male identified: what men value is assumed to be valued by all mankind making sports and man's world -male centered: men and men's lives are the expected focus of attention
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Understand the current approach to sex testing and how it is related to orthodox gender ideology
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-sex tests maintain the 2 category system. -the IOC tests women's testosterone levels. If the woman isn't androgen insensitive, then she must take drug treatments to suppress the production on testosterone. -is related because access to treatments under the supervision of a trusted and experienced physician is not equally available to female athletes worldwide. Also: -policing femininity isn't fair or easy, basing eligibility on appearance invites discrimination, discourages female participation, encourages women to use gender makeover strategies, unfair to women who lack resources for testing, policy can have harmful psychological consequences, the policy assumes that testosterone is the only factor that identifies sex, the policy undermines the inclusion of all intersex and transgender people, ignores hormones as a source of unfairness in men's events
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Identify reasons for the dramatic increase in sport participation rates among women of all ages since the mid-1970s
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-government legislation mandating equal rights-Title 9 (no person in the US shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal funding -global women's rights movement emphasizes that girls and women are enhanced as human beings when they develop their intellectual and physical abilities -health and fitness movement has made people more aware of the health benefits of physical activity. This has encouraged girls and women to seek opportunities to play sports -increased media coverage of women in sports are covered less, but social media and expansion of traditional media now enable girls and women to see and read about the achievements of female athletes in a wide range of sports
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Identify existing gender inequities in sports and the barriers faced when trying to achieve equity
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-Participation-disagreements about the sports women should play and the funding and other resources that should support their participation. These disagreements perpetuate gender inequities worldwide -support for athletes- female athletes in many US high schools and colleges receive less sport related support than boys and men do. This pattern also exists in sport sponsoring organizations worldwide -access to positions of power- most glaring when it comes to who holds positions of power in sports. As the visibility and importance of sports for girls and women has increased, most of the positions of power in those sports have been taken by men, and women seldom hold positions of power in men's sports. Data at all levels of competition show that women are severely underrepresented in coaching and administration jobs, especially at the highest levels of power in sports -sports celebrate masculinity, are a site where boys learn the meaning and language of manhood, legitimize male power, successful women are seen as threatening
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Understand what it means to say that sports and sport organizations today are male-dominated, male-identified, and male-centered
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In male dominated social worlds people see females as athletically inferior. In male identified social worlds, the values and experiences of men are assumed to be standard for everyone. In male centered social worlds, people assume that men are the center of attention and the main focus. Reemphasizes gender ideology
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Explain how orthodox gender ideology influences lesbians
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homophobia discourages some females from playing sports and from appearing too masculine if they do play. It still causes some parents to steer daughters away from teams, programs, and sports that they believe to attract lesbians or have lesbian coaches. When girls or women fear the label of lesbian, they may avoid certain sports, limit their commitment to sports, de-emphasize their athletic identities, or emphasize a presentation of self that explicitly portrays heterosexuality
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Explain how orthodox gender ideology influences gay men
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Homophobia remains a serious threat in men's sports and discourages nearly all gay athletes, coaches, and administrators from coming out. The culture of many men's sports continues to support a vocabulary of homophobia. However, heterosexual male athletes have in recent years been generally supportive of teammates who come out to them
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Explain how orthodox gender ideology influences intersex and transsexuals
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although intersex and trans women and men have been ignored or routinely excluded from nearly all organized sports, recent policy changes have allowed transsexuals to participate if they meet certain conditions related to standard medical practices and hormone therapy
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Identify effective strategies to promote gender equity in sports and sport organizations
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-using the law and engaging in grassroots activism -Boys and men benefit- gender equity in sports also involves creating options for boys and men to play sports based on pleasure and participation more than power and performance -Empowering girls and women through sports- sport participation offers girls and women opportunities to connect with the power of their body and reject notions that females are naturally weak, dependent, and powerless -Changing the way we do sports- creating new and different sports as well as expanding opportunities and creating for women and gender non conformers access to power positions in established sports -equity requires action from males and females, confront discriminatory practices, insist on fair practices, learn and educate others, object orthodox gender ideology, promote women's sports, create a supportive work climate
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Understand the concept of race
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refers to a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations. Exists only when people use a classification system that divides all human beings into distinct categories, which are believed to share genetically based physical traits passed from one generation to the next
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Understand the concept of ethnicity
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different from race in that it refers to a cultural heritage that people use use to identify a particular population. Is not based on biology or genetically determined traits
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Understand the concept of minority group
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is a socially identified population that suffers disadvantages due to systematic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on shared experiences of past and current discrimination
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Explain why race is a social construction and how racial categories are based on social meanings rather than a valid biological classification system
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is because it was used to justify colonization and exercising power over people of color around the world. As humans, we are extremely biologically similar
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Explain how and why race and racial ideology have been linked with sports in the United States
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is linked because white people were often unable to give credit to African American athletes when they won. Many would often say is was because of "instinct" or a "longer heel bone." People also often say that African Americans have better speed and jumping abilities which makes them better at certain sport. However, when white people excel, people conclude that it is because of brains or intelligence
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Explain why scientists and others have searched for sport performance genes in bodies with dark skin and why this is a misleading and futile exercise
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Is misleading because the actions of humans cannot be reduced to particular genetic factors... they do not work independently of the environment. No evidence has shown genes related to jumping have anything to do with skin color
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Explain the author's sociological hypothesis about the relationship between skin color and athletic performance
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the sense of biological and cultural destiny, combined with motivation and opportunities to develop certain sport skills, leads some black men, especially those with certain physical characteristics, to be outstanding athletes in certain sports
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Identify factors that have influenced sport participation among African Americans
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Throughout the 20th century, white people avoided playing with and against black people. Black people were excluded from participation in white-controlled sport programs... this has led to under-representation. White-centered, white-dominated, and white-identified sports settings creates under-representation
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Identify factors that have influenced sport participation among Native Americans
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participation is often limited due to high rates of poverty and poor health, lack of equipment and facilities, and little support from those who control sports. Many fear being cut off from their cultural roots and support systems
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Identify factors that have influenced sport participation among Latinos and Latinas
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they frequently maintain family connects and generally experience various forms of discrimination. Work patterns poverty, segregation, general discrimination, and cultural traditions have influenced their sport involvement. 1st generation girls may lack parental support, but 2nd and 3rd face fewer restraints
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Identify factors that have influenced sport participation among Asian Pacific Americans
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sports has given them opportunities to challenge and discredit stereotypes about their lack of height and strength, their inverted nature, and their singular dedication to intellectual development. Also, has been a way to gain greater acceptance in schools and communities
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Explain why the use of Native American images for team names, logos, and mascots has been a contentious issue in the United States
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because it perpetuates an ideology that trivializes and distorts the diverse histories and traditions of native cultures
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Understand the expressions of racism and bigotry in European sports
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-direct racism-fans insult players for ethnic, racial, or religious reasons -Indirect racism- fans use chants or banners that promote a bigoted or discriminatory political agenda -Racism on the field- negative racial, ethnic, or religious comments are made by and to players, coaches, and refs
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Identify the major challenges related to race and ethnic relations in sports today
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-eliminating racial and ethnic exclusion in sport participation -dealing with and managing racial and ethnic diversity by creating an inclusive culture on sport teams and in sport organizations -integrating positions of power in sport organizations
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What are the factors that currently influence racism and bigotry in European sports?
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Immigration policies are less strict than other parts of the world. Many see the immigrants as threatening their cultural values, quality of life, and political stability. Because sports teams are sponsored by clubs with members from the local population, sports often become sites for this kind of rhetoric
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Eplain how challenges related to race and ethnic relations today are different from the challenges faced throughout most of the twentieth century
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relations are much better than they were, but changes still need to be made. Years ago, once ethnic and racial segregation was eliminated, people must learn to live, work, and play together despite diverse experiences and perspectives. We now have to focus on nurturing relationships, producing an inclusive society, and sharing power with others
