Flashcards on Sociology: Chapters 1-3
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
Anomie
answer
The loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective -Durkheim coined the term -Often, the state of anomie occurs during a time of profound social change, when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction. in a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that they may resort to suicide
question
Applied sociology
answer
The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations -major societal concerns facing our nation -violence -pornography -crime -immigration -population Ex: the growing interest in learning more about local communities. since its founding in 1994, the Northeast Florida Center for Community Initiatives (CCI), based at the University of North Florida in Jacksonville, has conducted several community studies, including a homeless census and survey, an analysis of the economic impact of the arts in Jacksonville, and a long-term survey of the effects of Hurricane Katrina -typical of applied sociology, these outreach efforts are collaborative, involving faculty, undergraduate and graduate students, volunteers, and community residents -another CCI's applications of sociology, the Magnolia Project, is based in a storefront clinic in an underprivileged area of Jacksonville. Part of the Healthy Start initiative, which aims to decrease high infant mortality rates, the project serves women of childbearing age who have little or no regular access to health care. CCI's responsibility include (1) interviewing and surveying key community participants, (2) coordinating data collection by the project's staff, (3) analyzing data, and (4) preparing progress reports for funding agencies and community partners. Through March 2012, not a single infant death had occurred among the 293 participants in the program -applied sociologists generally leave it to policymakers to act on their evaluations
question
Basic sociology
answer
Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology -this type of research is not necessarily meant to generate specific applications, although such ideas may result once findings are analyzed -when Durkheim studied suicide rates, he was not primarily interested in discovering a way to eliminate suicide. In this sense, his research was an example of basic rather than applied sociology
question
Clinical sociology
answer
The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions -clinical sociologists take direct responsibility for implementation and view those with whom they work as their clients
question
Conflict perspective
answer
A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation -where functionalists see stability and consensus, conflict sociologists see a social world in continual struggle -the tension between competing groups need not be violent; it can take the form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for new members, or disputes over the federal budget -the conflict approach has become increasingly persuasive since the late 1960s. the widespread social unrest resulting from battles over civil rights, bitter divisions over the war in Vietnam, the rise of the feminist and gay liberation movements, the Watergate political scandal, urban riots, confrontations at abortion clinic, and shrinking economic prospects for the middle class have offered support for the conflict approach- the view that our social world is characterized by continual struggle between competing groups -Karl Marx viewed struggle between social classes as inevitable, given the exploitation of workers that he perceived under capitalism -expanding on Marx's work, sociologists and other social scientists have come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in all societies -in studying any culture, organization, or social group, sociologists want to know who benefits, who suffers, and who dominates at the expense of others -they are concerned with conflicts between women and men, parents and children, cities and suburbs, Whites and Blacks, to name a few -interested in how society's institutions- including family, government, religion, education, and the media- may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in subservient positions -their emphasis on social change and the redistribution of resources makes conflict theorists more radical and activist than functionalists -conflict theorists fear than the sociobiological approach could be used as an argument against efforts to assist disadvantaged people, such as schoolchildren who are not competing successfully
question
Cultural capital
answer
Noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts -not necessarily book knowledge, cultural capital refers to the kind of education that is valued by the socially elite -though chinese cuisine is cultural, it is not the prestigious kind of culture that is valued by the elite -in the US, immigrants- especially those who arrived in large numbers and settles in ethnic enclaves- have generally taken 2 or 3 generations to develop the same level of cultural capital enjoyed by more established groups
question
Double consciousness
answer
The division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities -W.E.B. DuBois coined the term to refer to the division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities. he used the term to describe the experience of being black in white america Ex: today, an African American holds the most powerful office in the nation, President of the US. Yet for millions of African Americans, the reality of being black in the US typically is not one of power
question
Dramaturgical approach
answer
A view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers -type of interactionist method -popularized by Erving Goffman -compares everyday life to the setting of the theater and stage -just as actors project certain images, all of us seek to present particular features of our personalities while we hide other features Ex: thus, in a class, we may feel the need to project a serious image; at a party, we may want to look relaxed and friendly
question
Dysfunction
answer
An element or process of a society that may disrupt the social system of reduce its stability -we view many dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as homicide, as undesirable. yet we should not automatically interpret them in this way -the evaluation of a dysfunction depends on one's own values or as the saying goes, on "where you sit" Ex: the official view in prisons in the US is that inmate gangs should be eradicated because they are dysfunctional to smooth operations. yet some guards have come to view prison gangs as a functional part of their jobs. the danger posed by gangs creates a "threat to security," requiring increased surveillance and more overtime work for guards, as well as requests for special staffing to address gang problems
question
Feminist perspective
answer
A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization -sociologists began embracing the feminist perspective only in the 1970s, although it has a long tradition in many other disciplines -because it focuses clearly on one aspect of inequality, it is often allied with the conflict perspective -proponents of the feminist view tend to focus on the macro level, just as conflict theorists do -drawing on the work of Marx and Engels, contemporary feminist theorists often view women's subordination as inherent in capitalist societies -some radical feminists view the oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies, whether capitalist, socialist, or communist -an early example of this perspective can be seen in the life and writings of Ida Wells-Barnett. following her groundbreaking publications in the 1890s on the practice of lynching Black Americans, she became an advocate in the women's rights campaign, especially the struggle to win the vote for women. like feminist theorists who succeeded her, Wells-Barnett used her analysis of society as a means of resisting oppression. in her case, she researched what it meant to be Black, a women in the US, and a Black woman in the US -feminist scholarship has broadened our understanding of social behavior by extending the analysis beyond the male point of view. consider sports. Ex: sports. feminist theorists consider how watching or participating in sports reinforces the roles that men and women play in the larger society: -although sports generally promote fitness and health, they may also have an adverse effect on participant's health. men are more likely to resort to illegal steroid use; women, to excessive dieting -gender expectations encourage female athletes to be passive and gentle, qualities that do not support the emphasis on competitiveness in sports. as a result, women find it difficult to enter sports traditionally dominated by men, such as Indy or NASCAR -although professional women athlete's earnings are increasing, they typically trail those of male athletes
question
Functionalist perspective
answer
A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability -think of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival -Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), a Harvard University sociologist, was a key figure in the development of the functionalist theory Ex: many Americans have difficulty understanding the Hindu prohibition against the slaughtering cows (specifically, zebu). What explains this devotion to the cow in the face of human deprivation- a devotion that appears to be dysfunctional? The simple explanation is that cow worship is highly functional in Indian society, according to economists, agronomists, and social scientists who have studied the matter -functionalists acknowledge that not all parts of a society contribute to its stability all the time (a dysfunction)
question
Globalization
answer
The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas -sociologists recognize that social behavior must be viewed in a global context Ex: September 2001, terrorist attack -one example of the massive global impact was the downturn in international tourism, which last for at least 2 years. the effects have been felt by people far removed from the US, including African game wardens and Asian taxi drivers -some observers see globalization and its effects as the natural result of advances in communications technology, particularly the Internet and satellite transmission of the mass media. others view it more critically, as a process that allows multinational corporations to expand unchecked
question
Ideal type
answer
A construct or model for evaluating specific cases -key concept credited by Weber -purpose was to provide a useful standard for measuring 'how bureaucratic an actual organization is' (Weber)
question
Interactionist perspective
answer
A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole -all these aspects of microsociology catch the attention of interactionists (workers interacting on the job, encounters in public places like bus stops and parkers, behavior in small groups) -today, given rising concern over the cost and availability of gas, interactionists have begun to study a form of commuter behavior called "slugging." To avoid driving to work, commuters gather at certain pre appointed places to seek rides from complete strangers. when a driver pulls into the parking area or vacant lot and announces his destination, the first slug in line who is headed for that destination jumps in. rules of etiquette have emerged to smooth the social interaction between driver and passenger: neither the driver nor the passenger may eat or smoke; the slug may not adjust the windows or radio or talk on a cell phone. the presence of the slugs, who get a free ride, may allow the driver to use special lanes reserved for high occupancy vehicles -also referred to as symbolic interactionism -interactionism is a sociological framework in which human beings are viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects. those "objects" may include material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symbols -they see symbols as an especially important part of human communication -symbols have a shared social meaning that is understood by all members of a society -George Herbert Mead is widely regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective -sociologists associated with the interactionist perspective emphasize that language and symbols offer a powerful way for a subculture to feel cohesive and maintain its identity
question
Latent function
answer
An unconscious or untended function that may reflect hidden purposes Ex: one latent function of universities is to hold down unemployment. another is to serve as a meeting ground for people seeking marital partners
question
Macrosociology
answer
Sociological investigation that concentrates on larger-scale phenomena or entire civilizations -coined by Robert Merton Ex: Émile Durkheim's cross-cultural study of suicide more recently macrosociologists have examined international crime rates and the stereotype of Asian Americans as a "model minority"
question
Manifest function
answer
An open, stated, an conscious function -Robert Merton (1968) made an important distinction between manifest and latent functions -they involve the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of society Ex: the university's role in certifying academic competence and excellence
question
Microsociology
answer
Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means -coined by Robert Merton Ex: sociological research on the micro level has included studies of how divorced men and women disengage from significant social roles and of how a teacher's expectations can affect a student's academic performance
question
Natural science
answer
The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change Ex: astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, and physics
question
Nonverbal communication
answer
The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and postures Ex: in the US, a salute symbolizes respect, while a clenched fist signifies deviance -we are not born with these expressions, we learn them, just as we learn other forms of language, from people who are our same culture -not the same in all cultures
question
Science
answer
The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation
question
Social capital
answer
The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust -much has been written about the importance of family and friendship networks in providing people with an opportunity to advance
question
Social inequality
answer
A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power -some sociologists, in seeking to understand the effects of inequality, have made the case for social justice Ex: the disparity between what coffee bean pickers in developing nations are paid and the price you pay for a cup of coffee underscores global inequality
question
Social science
answer
The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change Ex: sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science -have a common focus on the social behavior of people
question
Sociological imagination
answer
-An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. -This awareness allows all of us to comprehend the links between our immediate, personal social settings and the remote, impersonal social world that surrounds and helps to shape us. -A key element in the sociological imagination is the ability to view one's own society as an outsider would, rather than only from the perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. -Allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to understand broader public issues -one important way we can use a sociological imagination is to enhance our understanding of current social issues throughout the world
question
Sociology
answer
-The scientific study of social behavior and human groups -It focuses on social relationships; how those relationships influence people's behavior; and how societies, the sum total of those relationships, develop and change -involves the organized, systematic study of phenomena (in this case, human behavior) in order to enhance understanding -seek to draw conclusions that speak to all people- not just the affluent or the powerful -has been used to evaluate the success of programs or the impact of changes brought about by policymakers and political activists -the federal government has become the major source of funding for sociological research. Yet Max Weber urged that sociology remain an autonomous discipline and not become unduly influenced by any one segment of society. according to Weber's ideal of value neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is embarrassing to the government, or for that matter, supportive of government institutions
question
Theory
answer
In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior -we can think of theories as attempts to explain events, forces, materials, ideas, or behavior in a comprehensive manner -an effective theory may have both explanatory and predictive power (that is, it can help us to see the relationships among seemingly isolated phenomena, as well as to understand how one type of change in an environment leads to other changes) -not a final statement about human behavior
question
Verstehen
answer
The German word for "understanding" or "insight"; used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions -Weber spread the word, told his students that they should employ it in their intellectual work
question
Casual logic
answer
The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one leading to the other
question
Code of ethics
answer
The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession -The professional society of the discipline, the American Sociological Association (ASA), first published the society's Code of Ethics in 1971 and revised it most recently in 1997. It puts forth the following basic principles: 1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research 2. Respect the subject's right to privacy and dignity 3. Protect subjects from personal harm 4. Preserve confidentiality 5. Seek informed consent when data are collected from research participants or when behavior occurs in a private context 6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance 7. Disclose all sources of financial support (American Sociological Association 1999) -sometimes ASA's Code of Ethics, is not a sufficient guarantee of ethical conduct
question
Content analysis
answer
The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale -can be revealing Ex: despite women's participation in all sports, content analysis of televised sports coverage shows that even when a men's sport is out of season, it gets more coverage than women's sports in season. furthermore, coverage of female cheerleaders and athletes' wives exceeds coverage of the female athletes who compete in sports
question
Control group
answer
The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher
question
Control variable
answer
A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable
question
Correlation
answer
A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other -correlations are an indication that causality may be present; they do not necessarily indicate causation
question
Cross-tabulation
answer
A table or matrix that shows the relationship between two or more variables
question
Dependent variable
answer
The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable
question
Ethnography
answer
The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork -firsthand studies -basic technique of ethnography is observation, or direct participation in closely watching a group or organization -includes the collection of historical information and the conduct on in-person interviews -although ethnography may seem a relatively informal method compared to surveys or experiments, ethnographic researchers are careful to take detailed notes while observing their subjects -in some cases, the sociologist actually joins a group for a period, to get an accurate sense of how it operates, this approach is called participant observation -ethnographic research poses other complex challenges for the investigator. scientists must be able to fully understand what they are observing. in a sense, then, researchers must learn to see the world as the group sees it in order to fully comprehend the events taking place around them. this raises a delicate issue. if the researcher is to be successful, the observer cannot allow the close associations or even friendships that inevitably develop to influence the subject's behavior or the conclusions of the study. -Even while working hard to gain acceptance from the group being studied, the participant observer must maintain some degree of detachment
question
Experiment
answer
An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables -when sociologists want to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they may conduct experiments -in the classic method of conducting an experiment, 2 groups are selected and matched for similar characteristics, such as age or education. the researcher then assign the subjects to one of the 2 groups
question
Experimental group
answer
The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher
question
Hawthorne effect
answer
The unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects -in some experiments, just as in observation research, the presence of a social scientist or other observer may affect the behavior of the people being studied -the term originated as the result of an experiment conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company during the 1920s and 1930s. researchers found that every change they made in working conditions- even reduced lighting- seemed to have a positive effect on workers' productivity. they concluded that workers had made a special effort to impress their observers. though the carefully constructed study did identity some causes for changes in the workers' behavior hat did not have to do with their being observed, the term Hawthorne effect has become synonymous with a placebo or guinea pig effect -can be avoided by using secondary analysis
question
Hypothesis
answer
A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables -if refuted, researchers must reformulate their conclusions -sociologists are interested in both the general pattern that emerges from their data and exceptions to the pattern
question
Independent variable
answer
The variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in another variable
question
Interview
answer
A face-to-face, telephone, or online questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information -can obtain a higher response rate, because people find it more difficult to turn down a personal request for an interview than to throw away a written questionnaire -a skillful interviewer can go beyond written questions and probe for a subject's underlying feelings and reasons -studies have shown that the characteristics of the interviewer have an impact on survey data Ex: female interviewers tend to receive more feminist responses from female subjects than do map interviewers, and Black interviewers ten do receive more detailed responses about race-related issues from Black subjects than do White interviewers
question
Mean
answer
A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values -time-saver in sociological research and analysis
question
Median
answer
The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of values -time-saver in sociological research and analysis
question
Mode
answer
The single most common value in a series of scores -while the mode is easier to identify than other summary measures, it tells sociologists little about all the other values -time-saver in sociological research and analysis
question
Observation
answer
A research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation, by closely watching a group or community
question
Operational definition
answer
An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept -early on, any social science researcher must develop an operational definition of each concept being studied Ex: -a sociologist interested in status might use membership in exclusive social clubs as an operational definition of status -someone studying prejudice might consider a person's unwillingness to hire or work with members of minority groups as an operational definition of prejudice
question
Percentage
answer
A portion of 100 -allows us to compare groups of different sizes -time-saver in sociological research and analysis
question
Qualitative research
answer
Research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data -focuses on small groups and communities rather than on large groups or whole nations -most common form is ethnography, or observation
question
Quantitative research
answer
Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form -this type of research can make use of large samples, it can't offer great depth and detail on a topic
question
Questionnaire
answer
A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent -have the advantage of being cheaper, especially in large samples
question
Random sample
answer
A sample for which every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected
question
Reliability
answer
The extent to which a measure produces consistent results
question
Research design
answer
A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically -selection of a research design is often based on the theories and hypotheses the researcher starts with. the choice requires creativity and ingenuity, because it directly influences both the cost of the project and the amount of time needed to collect the data -research designs that sociologists regularly use to generate data include surveys, ethnography, experiments, and existing sources -page 41 for table of major research designs
question
Sample
answer
A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population
question
Scientific method
answer
A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem -standards of scientific research: quite stringent and they demand as strict adherence as possible -requires precise preparation in developing research. otherwise, the research data collected may not prove accurate. -sociologists and other researchers follow 5 basic steps in the scientific method: 1. defining the problem 2. reviewing the literature 3. formulating the hypothesis 4. selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data 5. developing the conclusion
question
Secondary analysis
answer
A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data -generally, in conducting secondary analysis, researchers use data in ways that were unintended by he initial collectors of information Ex: census data are compiled for specific uses by the federal government but are also valuable to marketing specialists in locating everything from bicycle store to nursing homes -sociologists consider secondary analysis to be nonreactive- that is, it does not influence people's behavior Ex: Émile Durkheim's statistical analysis of suicide neither increased nor decreased human self-destruction -researchers can then avoid the Hawthorne effect by using secondary analysis -there is one inherent problem, however: the researcher who relies on data collected by someone else may not find exactly what is needed -many social scientists find it useful to study cultural, economic, and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio and television taps, the Internet, scripts, diaries, songs, folklore, and legal papers
question
Survey
answer
A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act -must be based on precise, representative sampling if it is to genuinely reflect a broad range of the population -in preparing to conduct a survey, sociologists must not only develop representative samples; they must also exercise great care in the wording of questions -an effective survey question must be simple and clear enough for people to understand (it must be specific enough so that there are no problems in interpreting the results) -open-ended questions must be carefully phrased to solicit the type of information desired -surveys can be indispensable sources of information, but only if the sampling is done properly and the questions are worded accurately and without bias -in wording questions, researchers must also pay careful attention to change in society -2 main forms of the survey: interview and questionnaire
question
Validity
answer
The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study -a valid measure of income depends on the gathering of accurate data
question
Value neutrality
answer
Max Weber's term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data -he recognized that personal values would influence the questions that sociologists select for research. -in his view, that was perfectly acceptable, but under no conditions could a researcher allow his or her personal feelings influence the interpretation of data -in Weber's phrase, sociologists must practice value neutrality in their research -as part of this neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs Ex: -for example, Émile Durkheim challenged popular conceptions when he reported that social (rather than supernatural) forces were an important factor in suicide. -although some sociologists believe that neutrality is impossible, ignoring the issue would be irresponsible. Let's consider what would happen if researchers brought their own biases to the investigation. A person investigating the impact of intercollegiate sports on alumni contributions, for example, might focus only on the highly visible revenue-generating sports of football or basketball and neglect the so-called minor sports, such as tennis or soccer, which are more likely to involve women athletes. Despite the early work of W.E.B. DuBois and Jane Addams, sociologists still need to be reminded that the discipline often fails to adequately consider all people's social behavior. -the issue of value neutrality does not mean that sociologists can't have opinions, but it does mean that they must work to overcome any biases, however unintentional, that they may bring to their analysis of research
question
Variable
answer
A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions Ex: income, religion, occupation, and gender
question
Argot
answer
Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture -such argot allows insiders- the members of the subculture- to understand words with special meanings. -it also establishes patterns of communication that outsiders can't understand
question
Bilingualism
answer
The use of two languages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate -bilingualism has policy implications largely in 2 areas: efforts to maintain language purity and programs to enhance bilingual education -bilingual programs are an expense that many communities and states are unwilling to pay for and are quick to cut back -in the end, the immigrant's experience is not only about learning a new language. it is about learning a whole new culture- a new totality of socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior
question
Counterculture
answer
A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture -countercultures typically thrive among the young, who have the least investment in the existing culture
question
Cultural relativism
answer
The viewing of people's behavior from the perspective of their own culture -it places a priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as "strange" or "exotic." -unlike ethnocentrists, cultural relativists employ the kind of value neutrality in scientific study that Max Weber saw as so important -stresses that different social contexts give rise to different norms and values -positive views -looking at aspects of a culture that may seem exotic because they are different than your own, but accepting them because they are the aspects of other cultures Ex: southerner eating sushi in Japan. you probably are thinking i can't eat raw fish, but for cultural relativism, you think well this culture, Japanese, eat it so it must be alright to consume -although cultural relativism does not suggest that we must unquestionably accept every cultural variation, it does require a serious and unbiased effort to evaluate norms, values, and customs in light of their distinctive culture
question
Cultural universal
answer
A common practice or belief found in every culture -found in ALL cultures, just in different ways Ex: food, shelter, clothing, religion, sports (they are found in every culture, but there are not the same in every culture, they differ) -not only does the expression of cultural universal vary from society to another; within a society, it my also change dramatically over time. -each generation, and each year for that matter, most human culture change and expand
question
Culture
answer
The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior -it includes the ideas, values, and artifacts (Ex: DVDs, comic books, and birth control devices) of groups of people Ex: patriotic attachment to the flag of the US is an aspect of culture, as is a national passion for the tango in Argentina -in sociological terms, culture does not refer solely to the fine arts and refined intellectual taste. It consists of ALL objects and ideas within a society, including slang words, ice-cream cones, and rock music -Sociologists consider both a portrait by Rembrandt and the work of graffiti spray painters to be aspects of culture. A tribe that cultivates soil by hand has as much culture as a people that relies on computer-operated machinery. Each people has a distinctive culture with its own characteristic ways of gathering and preparing food, constructing homes, structuring the family, and promoting standards of right and wrong -the fact that you share a similar culture with others helps to define the group or society to which you belong -if it were not for the social transmission of culture, each generation would have to reinvent television, not to mention the wheel -having a common culture also simplifies many day-to-day interactions -all these assumptions reflect basic values, beliefs, and customs of the culture of the US -today, when text, sound, and video can be transmitted around the world instantaneously, some aspects of culture transcend national borders -each culture has a unique character -cultures adapt to meet specific sets of circumstances, such as climate, level of technology, population, and geography -like other aspects of culture, such as language and norms, a nation's values are not necessarily fixed
question
Culture industry
answer
The worldwide media industry that standardizes the goods and services demanded by consumers -spoken about by Theodor Adorno and many others
question
Culture lag
answer
A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions -introduced by William F. Ogburn Ex: pedofiles on the Internet, took many years before there were laws about that -resistance to technological change can lead not only to culture la, but to some real questions of cultural survival
question
Culture shock
answer
The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people experience when they encounter cultural practices that are different from their own Ex: -a resident of the US who visits certain areas of China and wants local meet for dinner may be stunned to learn that the speciality is dog meat. -someone from a strict Islamic culture may be shocked by the comparatively provocative dress styles and open displays of affection common in the US and various European cultures
question
Culture war
answer
The polarization of society over controversial cultural elements -originally, in the 1990s, the term referred to political debates over heated issues such as abortion, religious expression, gun control, and sexual orientation. Soon, it took on a global meaning- especially after 9/11, as Americans wondered, "Why do they hate us?" -Through 2000, global studies of pubic opinion had reported favorable views of the US in countries diverse as Morocco and Germany. But after the US established a military presence in Iraq and Afghanistan, foreign opinion of the US became quite negative
question
Diffusion
answer
The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or society to society -diffusion can occur through a variety of means, among them exploration, military conquest, missionary work, and the influence of the mass media, tourism, and the Internet -it has also been hastened by the spread of the fat-food restaurant
question
Discovery
answer
The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality -a significant factor in the process of discovery is the sharing of newfound knowledge with others Ex: the finding of the structure of the DNA molecule and the identification of a new moon of Saturn are both acts of discovery Ex: -Pluto is a planet -atoms, nucleus, protons, electrons, neutrons
question
Dominant ideology
answer
A set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests -In Karl Marx's view, a capitalist society has a dominant ideology that serves the interests of the ruling class -from the conflict perspective, the dominant ideology has major social significance. not only do a society's most powerful groups and institutions control wealth and property; even more important, they control the means of producing beliefs about reality through religion, education, and the media -feminists would also argue that if all a society's most important institutions tell women they should be subservient to men, that dominant ideology will help to control women and keep them in a subordinate position
question
Ethnocentrism
answer
The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others -term coined by William Graham Sumner in 1906 -the ethnocentric person sees his or her group as the center of defining point of culture and views all other cultures as deviations from what is "normal" Ex: Westerners who think cattle are to be used for food might look down on India's Hindu religion and culture, which view the cow as sacred. Or people in one culture may dismiss as unthinkable the mate selection or child-rearing practices of another culture -in sum, our view of the world is dramatically influenced by the society in which we were raised -ethnocentrism means evaluating foreign cultures using the familiar culture of the observer as a standard of correct behavior -negative views
question
Folkway
answer
A norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern -play an important role in shaping the daily behavior of members of a culture. -society is less likely to formalize folkways than mores, and their violation raises comparatively little concern Ex: wearing flip-flops in the middle of DC winter
question
Formal norm
answer
A norm that has been written down and that specifics strict punishments for violators -In the US, we often formalize norms into laws, which are very precise in defining proper and improper behavior -laws are just one example of formal norms. the requirements for a college major and the rules of a card game are also considered formal norms
question
Informal norm
answer
A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded -standards of proper dress are a common example of informal norms -our society has no specific punishment, or sanction, for a person who comes to school, say, wearing a monkey suit. making fun of the nonconforming student is usually the most likely response
question
Innovation
answer
The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture through discovery or invention -innovation interest sociologists because of the social consequences of introducing something new. -there are 2 forms of innovation: discovery and invention
question
Invention
answer
The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before Ex: the bow and arrow, the automobile, and the television are all examples of inventions, s are Protestantism and democracy Ex: -facebook
question
Language
answer
An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; including gestures and other nonverbal communication -one of the major elements of culture that underlie cultural variations -an important component of cultural capital -members of a society generally share a common language, which facilitates day-to-day exchanges with others -7,000 languages are spoken in the world today -language is fundamental to their shared culture Ex: -the English language makes extensive use of the words dealing with war. An observer from an entirely different and warless culture could gauge the importance that war and the military have had in our lives simply by recognizing the prominence that militaristic terms have in our language -language is the foundation of every culture -it includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and nonverbal gestures and expressions. -language quickly became a key not only to tracking potential terrorists, but also to building diplomatic bridges with Muslim countries willing to help in the war against terrorism -language does more than simply describe reality; it also serves to shape the reality of a culture -can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel, and hear -it also influences the way we think about the people, ideas, and objects around us -language communicates a culture's most important norms, values, and sanctions
question
Law
answer
Governmental social control
question
Material culture
answer
The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives -coined by William F. Ogburn -including food, housing, factories, and raw-materials (physical things)
question
Mores
answer
Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society
question
Nonmaterial culture
answer
Ways of using material objects, as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication -coined by William F. Ogburn -generally, the nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than the material cultures
question
Norm
answer
An established standard of behavior maintained by a society -for an norm to be significant, it must be widely shared and understood Ex: heterosexuality as the norm in marital partnerships, silencing your phone during a film -sociologists distinguish between norms in 2 ways. -First norms are classified as either formal or inform. -Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. when classified in this way, they are known as mores and folkways -norms are violated in some instances because one norm conflicts with another Ex: suppose that you live in an apartment building and one night hear the screams of the woman next door, who is being beaten by her husband. If you decide to intervene by ringing their doorbell or calling the police, you are violating the norm of minding your own business, while following the norm of assisting a victim of violence -acceptance of norms is subject to change as the political, economic, and social conditions of a culture are transformed Ex: until the 1960s, formal norms throughout much of the US prohibited the marriage of people form different racial groups. over the past half century, however, such legal prohibitions were cast aside. the process of change can be seen today in the increasing acceptance of single parents and growing support for the legalization of marriage between same-sex couples -when circumstances require the sudden violation of longstanding cultural norms, the change can upset an entire population -the entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture's values and priorities. the most cherished values will be most heavily sanctioned; matters regarded as less critical will carry light and informal sanctions
question
Sanction
answer
A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm -conformity to an norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a medal, a word of gratitude, or a pat on the back -negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment, and stares of contempt -the entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture's values and priorities. the most cherished values will be most heavily sanctioned; matters regarded as less critical will carry light and informal sanctions
question
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
answer
A hypothesis concerning the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. It holds that language is culturally determined -named for 2 linguists -describes the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. -according to Sapir and Whorf, because people can conceptualize the world only through language, language PRECEDES though. -thus the word symbols and grammar of a language organize the world of us -this hypothesis also holds that language is not a given. rather, it is culturally determined, and it encourages a distinctive interpretation of reality by focusing our attention on certain phenomena
question
Society
answer
A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture -the fact that you share a similar culture with others helps to define the group or society to which you belong -a society is the largest form of human group. it consists of people who share a common heritage and culture. members of society learn this culture and transmit it from one generation to the next. they even preserve their distinctive culture through literature, art, video recordings, and other means of expression
question
Sociobiology
answer
The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior -stresses the universal aspects of culture -sociobiologists assert that many of the cultural traits humans display, such as the almost universal expectation that women will be nurturers and men will be providers, are not learned but are rooted in our genetic makeup -founded on the naturalist Charles Darwin's (1859) theory of evolution: species would slowly adapt to their environment -Darwin called this process of adaption to the environment through random genetic variation natural selection -sociobiologists apply Darwin's principle of natural selection to the study of social behavior. they assume that particular farms of behavior become genetically linked to a species if they contribute to its fitness to survive -in its extreme form, sociobiology suggests that all behavior is the result of genetic or biological factors, and that social interactions play no role in shaping people's conduct -sociobiologists focus on how human nature is affected by the genetic composition of a group of people who share certain characteristics (such as men or women, or members of isolated tribal bands) -in general, sociobiologists have stressed the basic genetic heritage that all humans share and have shown little interest in speculating about alleged differences between racial groups and nationalities -however, family cohesiveness, peer group behavior, and other social factors can override genetic influences on behavior -conflict theorists fear than the sociobiological approach could be used as an argument against efforts to assist disadvantaged people, such as schoolchildren who are not competing successfully
question
Subculture
answer
A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society Ex: rodeo rider, residents of a retirement community, workers on an offshore oil rig- all are examples of what sociologists refer to as subcultures -in a sense, a subculture can be thought of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. -the existence of many subcultures is characteristic of complex societies such as the US -members of a subculture participate in the dominant culture while engaging in unique and distinctive forms of behavior -frequently, a subculture will develop an argot, or specialized language, that distinguishes it from the wider society -athletes that play parkour, an extreme sport that combines forward running with fence leaping and the vaulting of walls, water barriers, and even moving cars, speak an argot they devised especially to describe their feats. Parkour runners talk about doing King Kong vaults- diving arms first over a wall or grocery cart and landing in a standing position. they may follow this Ex: -In India, a new subculture has developed among employees at the international call centers established by multinational corporations. to serve customers in the US and Europe, the young men and women who work there must be fluent speakers of English. But the corporations that employ them demand more than proficiency in a foreign language; they expect their Indian employees to adopt Western values and work habits, including the grueling pace US workers take for granted. In return they offer perks such as Western-style dinners, dances, and coveted consumer goods. Significantly, they allow employees to take the day off on US holidays, like Labor Day and Thanksgiving- not on Indian holidays like Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights. While most Indian families are home celebrating, call center employees see only each other; when they have the day off, no one else is free to socialize with them. As a result, these employees have formed a tight-knit subculture based on hard work and a taste for Western luxury goods and leisure-time pursuits. Another shared characteristic among some employees at Indian call centers is their contempt for the callers they serve. In preforming their monotonous, repetitive job day after day, hundreds of thousands of these workers have come to see the faceless Americans they feel with as slow, often rude customers. Such shared understandings underpin this emerging subculture
question
Symbol
answer
A gesture, object, or word that forms the basis of human communication -use of symbols to convey meaning to others Ex: thumbs-up gesture, a gold star sticker, and the smiley face in an e-mail are all symbols -often deceptively simple, many symbols are rich in meaning and may not convey the same meaning in all social contexts
question
Technology
answer
Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires -technology in its many forms has increased the speed of cultural diffusion and broadened the distribution of cultural elements -technology not only accelerates the diffusion of scientific innovations but also transmits culture -The English language and North American culture dominate the Internet and World Wide Web. Such control, or at least dominance, of technology influences the direction of cultural diffusion. Ex: websites cover been the most superficial aspects of the US culture but offer little information about the pressing issues faced citizens of other nations
question
Value
answer
A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper-or bad, undesirable, and improper-in a culture -they indicate what people in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right (or wrong) -may be specific, such as honoring one's parents and owning a house, or they may be more general, such as health, love, and democracy -the members of a society do not uniformly share its values Ex: angry political debates and billboards promoting conflicting causes tell us that much -values influence people's behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others -the values, norms, and sanctions of a culture are often direct related Ex: -if a culture places a high value on the institution of marriage, it may have norms (or strict sanctions) that prohibit the act of adultery or make divorce difficult -if a culture views private property as a basic value, it will probably have stiff laws against theft and vandalism -the values of a culture may change, but most remain relatively stable during one person's lifetime -socially shared, intensely felt values are a fundamental part of our lives in the US -values can also differ in subtle ways not just among individuals and groups, but from one culture to another -an example of cultural differences in values is public opinion regarding the treatment of different racial and ethnic groups
question
Examples to discuss with sociological terms: -why thousands of jobs have moved from the US to developing nations -what social forces promote prejudice -what leads someone to join a social movement and work for social change -how access to computer technology can reduce social inequality -why relationships between men and women in Seattle differ from those in Singapore
answer
...
question
C. Wright Mills
answer
-leading sociologist -coined the term: sociological imagination- an awareness of the relationships between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past -advocated using the sociological imagination to view divorce not as simply an individual's personal pronely but rather as a societal concern (we can see that an increase in the divorce rate actually redefines a major social institution- the family. this private concern becomes a public issue that affects schools, government agencies, businesses, and religious institutions)
question
What do sociologists focus on?
answer
they study the influence that society has on people's attitudes and behavior and the ways in which people interact and shape society
question
How might sociologists study the impact of the global recession that began in 2008?
answer
-They might note a change in marital patterns in the United States. Since the recession began, the median age of first marriage has risen to 28.7 years for men and 26.7 years for women. -Sociologists might also observe that today, fewer people are making that rip to the altar than in the past. -Sociologists might evaluate the recession's impact on education. Private school enrollment declined. -They might even consider the recession's effect on environmental actions, such as carpooling.
question
Virginia Tech shooting
answer
the event raised numerous issues and topics for study, including: -the media's role in describing the attacks -the presence of violence in our educational institutions -the gun control debate -the inadequacy of the nation's mental health care system -the stereotyping and stigmatization of people who suffer from mental illness
question
common sense
answer
sometimes accurate, is not always reliable, because it rests on commonly held beliefs rather than on systematic analysis of facts -talkativeness of sexes (proved inconclusive, women and men spoke about the same)
question
What aspects of the social and work environment in a fast-food restaurant would be of particular interest to a sociologist? How would the sociological imagination help in analyzing the topic?
answer
-advertisements: how they are portraying fast-food restaurants -that more lower class people go their than upper class people -the average weight of customers
question
Why do people commit suicide?
answer
Sociologists are not particularly interested in why any one individual commits suicide; they are more concerned with identifying the social forces that systematically cause some people to take their own lives
question
Émile Durkheim
answer
-sociologist that tried to look at suicide data scientifically -developed a highly original theory about the relationship between suicide and social factors -primarily concerned not with the personalities of individual suicide victims, but rather with suicide rates and how they varied from country to country (compared suicide rates in different nations -> found Denmark had the highest suicide rate) -"Suicide" published in 1897 -refused to accept unproved explanations regarding suicide including the beliefs that inherited tendencies or cosmic forces caused such deaths -focused on SOCIAL FACTORS, such as cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness of religious, social, and occupational groups -his research suggested that suicide, although it is a solitary act, is related to group life. he found that people without religious affiliations had a higher suicide rate than those who were affiliated the unmarried had much higher rates than married people; and soldiers had a higher rate than civilians. in addition, there seemed to be higher rates of suicide in times of peace than in times of war and revolution, and in times of economic instability and recession rather than in times of prosperity -concluded that the suicide rates of a society reflected the extent to which people were or were not integrated into the group life of society -son of a rabbi; educated in both France and Germany; established an impressive academic reputation and was appointed one of the first professors of sociology in France -**will be remembered for his insistence that behavior must be understood within a lager social context, not just in individualistic terms -developed a fundamental thesis to help explain all forms of society. through intensive study of Arunta, an Australian tribe, he focused on the functions that religion performed and underscored the role of group life in defining what we consider to be religion. Durkheim concluded that like other forms of group behavior, religion reinforces a group's solidarity -another of his main interests was the consequences of work in modern societies. in his view, the growing division of labor in industrial societies, as workers became much more specialized in their tasks, led to what he called "anomie" -concerned about the dangers of alienation, loneliness, and isolation might pose for modern industrial societies -he shared Comte's belief that sociology should provide direction for social change -he advocated the creation of new social groups- mediators between the individual's family and the state- that would provide a sense of belonging for members of huge, impersonal societies (i.e. unions)
question
Social factors
answer
We all live in either a multicultural or self society so this means there are many factors that affect or direct our lifestyle. The term social factors refers to the facts and experiences that influence or control an individuals' personality, attitudes and lifestyle. These factors help an individual live well in harmony with others in the society. The facts and experiences that influence individuals' personality, attitudes and lifestyle. 1. Religion 2. Ethnicity 3. Family 4. Physical attributes (Skin color, Body type etc) 5. Economic Status 6. Education 7. Locality (Location: Where you live,Type of Neighbors etc.) 8. Life Partner and children 9. Political System (Democratic or Socialist etc)
question
Suicide rate in Las Vegas
answer
-twice as high as in the Unite Sates as a whole -The sense of community cohesiveness that the rest of the country enjoys may be lacking. because of the constant flux of tourists that come and go in and from the city
question
Can you think of any other explanation for the high suicide rate in Las Vegas? Does that explanation agree with Durkheim's theory?
answer
...
question
Auguste Comte
answer
1798-1857 -credited with being the most influential of the philosophers of the early 1800s -believed that a theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society -coined the term "sociology" to apply to the science of human behavior -hoped that the systematic study of social behavior would eventually lead to more rational human interactions -sociology was at the top of his hierarchy of the sciences, calling it the "queen" and its practitioners "scientist-priests" -French
question
Harriet Martineau
answer
1802-1876 -translated a lot of Comte's works, many scholars learned about Comte's work through Martineau -English sociologist -she offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices of both her native Britain and the United States -book "Society in America" examined religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in the young nation. it gave special attention to social class distinctions and to such factors as gender and race -wrote the first book on sociological methods -her writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, health, and population could have on social problems -spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of slaves, and religious tolerance -thought that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society
question
Herbert Spencer
answer
1820-1903 -Victorian Englishman -did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; instead, he merely hoped to understand it better -drawing on Charles Darwin's study "On the Origin of Species," Spencer applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies in order to explain how they change, or evolve, over time -he adapted Darwin's evolutionary view of the "survival of the fittest" by arguing that it is "natural" that some people are rich while others are poor -his approach to societal change was extremely popular in his lifetime -Unlike Comte, Spencer suggested that since societies are bound to change eventually, one need not be highly critical of present arrangements or work actively for social change. (this viewpoint appealed to many influential people in England and the United States who had a vested interest in the status quo and were suspicious of social thinkers who endorsed change
question
Max Werber
answer
1864-1920 -born in Germany, studied legal and economic history, but gradually developed an interest in sociology. he became a professor at various German universities -taught his students that they should employ "verstehen," the German word for "understanding" or "insight," in their intellectual work -he pointed out that we cannot analyze our social behavior by the same type of objective criteria we use to measure wight or temperature -to fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions-how they themselves view and explain their behavior -we also credit Weber for a key conceptual tool: the ideal type -he recognized that personal values would influence the questions that sociologists select for research. -in his view, that was perfectly acceptable, but under no conditions could a researcher allow his or her personal feelings influence the interpretation of data -in Weber's phrase, sociologists must practice value neutrality in their research
question
Example of verstehen: studying the social rankings of individuals in a fraternity
answer
Weber would expect the researcher to employ verstehen to determine the significance of the fraternity's social hierarchy for its members. the researcher might examine the effects of athleticism or grades or social skills or seniority on standing within the fraternity. he or she would seek to learn how the fraternity members relate to other members of higher or lower status. while investigating these questions, the researcher would take into account people's emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes
question
Karl Marx
answer
1818-1883 -(shared with Durkheim and Weber) a dual interest in abstract philosophical issues and the concrete rarity of everyday life. (unlike them, Marx was so critical of existing institutions that a congenital academic career was impossible. he spent most of his life in exile from his native Germany) -met Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) in Paris, with whom he formed a lifelong friendship. the two lived at a time when European and North American economic life was increasingly dominated by the factory rather than the farm -While in London in 1847, Marx and Engels attended secret meetings of an illegal coalition of labor unions known at the Communist League. The following year they prepared a platform called "The Communist Manifesto," in which they argued that the masses of people with no resources other than their labor (whom they referred to as the proletariat) should unite to fight for the overthrow of capitalist societies. -After completing The Communist Manifesto, Marx returns to Germany, only to be expelled -Moved to England, and wrote books and essays. lived in extreme poverty -his analysis, society was fundamentally divided between 2 classes that clashed in pursuit of their own interests (examined the industrial societies, such as Germany, England, and the US, he saw the factory as the center of conflict between the exploiters and the exploited) -he viewed these relationships in systematic terms; that is, he believed that a system of economic, social, and political relationships maintained the power and dominance of the owners over the workers. -Marx and Engels argued that the working class should overthrow the existing class system -Marx emphasized the group identifications and associations that influence an individual's place in society -Marx's work encouraged sociologists to view society through the eyes of those segments of the population that rarely influence decision making -Marx and Engels warned in The Communist Manifesto (written in 1848) of a world market that would lead to production in distant lands, sweeping away existing working relationships -In Karl Marx's view, a capitalist society has a dominant ideology that serves the interests of the ruling class
question
W.E.B. DuBois
answer
1868-1963 -Black sociologist -conducted research that he, and other black sociologists, hoped would assist in the struggle for a racially egalitarian society -believed that knowledge was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and justice -he contended that sociologists needed to draw on scientific principles to study social problems such as those experienced by blacks in the US -to separate opinion from fact, he advocated basic research on the lives on blacks -saw the importance of religion in society -he tended to focus on religion a the community level and the role of the church in the lives of its members -had little patience for theorists such as Hebert Spencer, who seemed context with the status quo -he believed that the granting of full political rights to blacks was essential to their social and economic progress -many of his ideas challenged the stays quo, and so he could not find a receptive audience within either the government or the academic world -he became increasingly involved with organizations whose members questioned the established social order -in 1909 he helped to found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) -in 1897 he coined the term double consciousness to refer to the division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities. he used the term to describe the experience of being black in white america -noted that the greatest power in the land is not "thought or ethics, but wealth."
question
Charles Horton Cooley
answer
1864-1929 -was typical of the sociologists who came to prominence in the early 1900s -born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Cooley received his graduate training in economics but later became a sociology professor at the Univeristy of Michigan -shared the desire of Durkheim, Weber, and Marx to learn more about society -he preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units- intimate, face-to-face groups such as families, gangs, and friendship networks. he saw these groups as the seedbeds of society, in a sense that they shape people's ideals, beliefs, values, and social nature -his work increased our understanding of groups of relatively small size
question
Jane Addams
answer
1860-1935 -in the early 1900s, many leading sociologists in the US saw themselves as social reformers dedicated to systematically studying and then improving a corrupt society. they were genuinely concerned about the lives of immigrants in the nation's growing cities, where those immigrants came from Europe or from the rural American South -early female sociologists, often took active roles in poor urban areas as leaders of community centers known as settlement houses -member of the American Sociological Society -confounded the famous Chicago settlement house called Hull House -Addams and other pioneering female sociologists commonly combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism- all with the goal of assisting the underprivileged and creating a more egalitarian society -working with the black journalist and educator Ida Wells-Barnett, Addams successfully prevented racial segregation in the Chicago public schools
question
Society for the Study of Social Problems
answer
1950- -created to deal more directly with social inequality and other social problems
question
Robert Merton
answer
1910-2003 -successfully combined theory and research -born to Slavic immigrant parents in Philadelphia, he won a scholarship to Temple University. he continued his studies at Harvard. his teaching career was based at Columbia University -he noted different ways in which people attempt to achieve success in life -in his view, some may deviate from the socially approved goal of accumulating material goods or the socially accepted means of achieving that goal -in his classification scheme, innovators are people who accept the goal of pursuing material wealth but use illegal means to do so, including robbery, burglary, and extortion -based his explanation of crime on individual behavior that has been influenced by society's approved goals and means -his theory helps to account for the high crime rates among the nation's poor, who may see no hope of advancing themselves through traditional roads to success -he emphasized that sociology should strive to bring together the macro-level and micro-level approaches to the study of society -Robert Merton (1968) made an important distinction between manifest and latent functions
question
Pierre Bourdieu
answer
1930-2002 -French sociologist -did fieldwork in Algeria during its struggle for independence from France -wrote about how capital in its many forms sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next -to Bourdieu, capital included not just material goods, but cultural and social assets -in his emphasis on cultural and social capital, Bourdieu's work extends the insights of early social thinkers such as Marx and Weber
question
theoretical perspectives
answer
also known as approaches or views
question
What kinds of social and cultural capital do you possess?
answer
...
question
Talcott Parsons
answer
(1902-1979) -Harvard University sociologist, was a key figure in the development of the functionalist theory -greatly influenced by the work of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and other European sociologists -for more than 4 decades, he dominated the sociology in the US with his advocacy for functionalism -he saw any society as a vast network of connected parts, each of which helps to maintain the system as a whole -his approach, carried forward by Niklas Luhmann, holds that if an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society's stability or survival- if it does not serve some identifiably useful function or promote value consensus amount members of society- it will not be passed on from one generation to the next
question
Niklas Luhmann
answer
1927-1998 -German sociologist -carried forward Parsons' approach
question
You are a sociologist who takes the conflict perspective. How would you interpret the practice of prostitution? How would your view of prostitution differ if you took the functionalist perspective? The feminist perspective?
answer
...
question
George Herbert Mead
answer
1863-1931 -widely regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective -taught at the University of Chicago from 1893 until his death
question
Erving Goffman
answer
1922-1982 -popularized a particular type of interactionist method known as dramaturgical approach, in which people are seen as theatrical performers
question
the sociological approach
answer
-many sociologists tend to favor one particular perspective over others -a sociologist's theoretical orientation influences his or her approach to a research problem in important ways- including the choice of what to study, how to study it, and what questions to pose (or not to pose) -whatever the purpose of sociologist's work, their research will always be guided by their theoretical viewpoints
question
Elijah Anderson
answer
-sociologist who embraces both the interactionist perspective and the groundbreaking work of W.E.B. DuBois -for 14 years Anderson conducted fieldwork in Philadelphia, where he studied the interactions of Black and White residents who lived in adjoining neighborhoods -he was interested in their public behavior, including their eye contact- or lack of it- as they passed one another on the street -his research tells us much about the everyday social interactions of Black and Whites in the US, but it does not explain the larger issues behind those interactions
question
Research and theories
answer
like theories, research illuminates one part of the stage, leaving other parts in relative darkness
question
Relate the toys on display in your local store to issues of arc, class, and gender
answer
...
question
major sociological perspectives
answer
look at table (pg. 17)
question
Jane Addams, W.E.B. DuBois, and George Herbert Mead
answer
-early sociologists who were strong advocates for social reform -they wanted their theories and findings to be relevant to policymakers and to people's lives in general Ex: Mead was the treasurer of Hull House, where he applied his theory to importing the lives of those who were powerless (especially immigrants). he also served on committees dealing with Chicago's labor problems and public education
question
Michael Burawoy
answer
-in his presidential address to the American Sociological Association, endorsed what he called public sociology, encouraging scholars to engage a broader audience in bringing about positive outcomes. -in effect, the applied sociologists reaches out to others and joins them in their efforts to better society
question
major societal concerns facing our nation
answer
-violence -pornography -crime -immigration -population
question
medical sociology and environmental sociology
answer
growing interest in applied sociology has led to such specializations as medical sociology and environmental sociology. the former includes research on how health care professionals and patients deal with disease Ex: -medical sociologists have studied the social impact of the AIDS crisis on families, friends, and communities -environmental sociologists examine the relationship between human societies and the physical environment -one focus on their work is the issue of "environmental justice," raised when researchers and community activists found that hazardous waste dumps are especially likely to be situated in poor and minority neighborhoods
question
Louis Wirth
answer
wrote about clinical sociology more than 75 years ago
question
What issues facing your local community would you like to address with applied sociological research? Do you see any global connections to these local issues?
answer
...
question
Andrew Cherlin
answer
-sociologist has commented on the debate over proposed federal funding to promote marriage among welfare recipients -Cherlin questioned the potential effectiveness of such a policy in strengthening low-income families -his research shows that children who are raised in stepfamilies are no better off than those in single-parent families -he sees government efforts to promote marriage as a politely motivated attempt to foster traditional social values in a society that has become increasingly diverse
question
Review of the literature
answer
-relevant scholarly studies and information- researchers refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes -can look at other studies or review earlier research
question
convenience sample
answer
or snowball sample -they recruit participants through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet
question
how a question is formatted
answer
if a question is written unclearly, the resulting data might not be accurate
question
What might be the effects of a college education on society as a whole? Think of some potential effects on the family, government, and the economy.
answer
...
question
participant observation
answer
when the sociologist actually joins a group for a period, to get an accurate sense of how it operates
question
"Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America" by Barbara Ehrenreich
answer
-the author was a participant observer -disguising herself as a divorced, middle-aged housewife without a college degree, Ehrenreich set out to see what life was like for low-wage workers -her book chronicles her own and others' experiences trying to make ends meet on a minimum wage
question
William F. Whyte
answer
during the late 1930s, in a classic example of participant-observation research, William F. Whyte moved into a low-income Italian neighborhood in Boston. For nearly four years he was a member of the social circle of "corner boys" that he describes in "Street Corner Society." Whyte revealed his identity to these men and joined their conversations, bowling, and other leisure-time activities. His goal was to gain greater insight into the community that these men had established. As Whyte listened to Doc, the leader of the group, he "learned the answers to questions I would not even have had the sense to ask if I had been getting my information solely on an interviewing basis." Whyte's work was especially valuable, since at the time the academic world had little direct knowledge of the poor, and tended to rely for information on the records of social service agents, hospitals, and courts. -the initial challenge that Whyte faced- and that every participant observer encounters- was to gain acceptance into an unfamiliar group. It requires a great deal of patience and an accepting, nonthreatening type of personality on the part of the observer
question
Imagine you are a legislator or government policymaker working on a complex social problem. What might happen if you were to base your decision on faulty research?
answer
...
question
review board
answer
Research proposals that involve human subjects must now be overseen by a review board, whose members seek to ensure that subjects are not placed at any unreasonable level of risk. If necessary, the board may ask researchers to revise their research design to conform to the code of ethics
question
Rik Scarce
answer
In May 1993, Rik Scarce, a doctoral candidate in sociology at Washington State University, was jailed for contempt of court. Scarce had declined to tell a federal grand jury what he knew- or even whether he knew anything- about a 1991 raid on a university research laboratory by animal rights activists. At the time, Scarce was conducting research for a book about environmental protesters and knew at least one suspect in the break-in. Curiously, although he was chastised by a federal judge, Scarce won respect from fellow prison inmates, who regarded him as a man who "wouldn't snitch." The ASA supported Scarce's position when he appealed his sentence. Scarce maintained his silence. Ultimately the judge ruled that nothing would be gained by further incarceration, and Scarce was released after serving 159 days in jail. In January 1994, the US Supreme Court declined to hear Scarce's case on appeal. The Court's failure to consider his case led Scarce (2005) to argue that federal legislation is needed to clarify the right of scholars and members of the press to preserve the confidentiality of those they interview.
question
Conflict of interest
answer
-sometimes disclosing all the sources of funding for a study, as required in principle 7 of the ASA's Code of Ethics, is not a sufficient guarantee of ethical conduct. -especially in the case of both corporate and government funding, money given ostensibly for the support of basic research may come with strings attached. -accepting funds from a private organization of even a government agency that stands to benefit from a study's results can call into question a researcher's objectivity and integrity (principle 1) Ex: -the controversy surrounding the involvement of social scientists in the U.S. Army's Human Terrain System is one example of this conflict of interest -another example is the Exxon Corporation's support for research on jury verdicts. In 1989, the Exxon oil tanker Valdez hit a reef off the coast of Alaska, spilling more than 11 million gallons of oil into Prince William Sound. Five years later a federal court ordered Exxon to pay $5.3 billion in damages for the accident. Exxon appealed the verdict and began approaching legal scholars, sociologists, and psychologists who might be willing to study jury deliberations. The corporation's objective was to develop academic support for its lawyers' contention that the punitive judgments in such cases result from faulty deliberations and do not have a deterrent effect. -some scholars have questioned the propriety of accepting funds under these circumstances, even if the source is disclosed. -In at least one case, n Exxon employee explicitly told a sociologist that the corporation offers finical support to scholars who have shown the tendency to express views similar to its own. An argument can also be made that Exxon was attempting to set scholars' research agendas with its huge was chest. Rather than funding studies on the improvement of cleanup technologies or the assignment of longterm environmental costs, Exxon chose to shift scientists' attention to the validity of the legal awards in environmental cases. -the scholars who accepted Exxon's support deny that is influenced their work or changed their conclusions. Some received support from other sources as well, such as the National Science Foundation and Harvard University's Olin Center for Law, Economics, and Business. Many of their findings were published in respected academic journals after review by a jury of peers. Still, at least one researcher who participated in the studies refused monetary support from Exxon to avoid even the suggestion of a conflict of interest. -Exxon has spent roughly $1 million on the research, and at least one compilation of studies congenial to the corporation's point of view has been published. As ethical considerations require, the academics who conducted the studies disclosed Exxon's role in funding them. Nevertheless, the investment appears to have paid off. In 2006, drawing on these studies, Exxon's lawyers succeeded in persuading an appeals court to reduce the corporation's legal damages from $5.3 to $2.5 billion. In 2008 Exxon appealed that judgment to the Supreme Court, which further reduced the damages to $500 million. The final award, which is to be shared by about 32,000 plaintiffs, will result in payments of about $15,000 to each person
question
"The Death of White Sociology" by Joyce Ladner
answer
1973 -Joyce Ladner called attention to the tendency of mainstream sociology to treat the lives of African Americans as a social problem.
question
Shulamit Reinharz
answer
1992 -more recently, feminist sociologist Shulamit Reinharz has argued that sociological research should be not only inclusive but also open to bringing about social change and to drawing on relevant research by nonsociologists.
question
Joyce Ladner and Shulamit Reinharz
answer
both Ladner and Reinharz maintain that researchers should always analyze whether women's unequal social status has affected their studies in any way Ex: -for example, one might broaden the study of the impact of education on income to consider the implications of the unequal pay status of men and women
question
Peter Rossi
answer
1987 -sociologist Peter Rossi admits to having liberal inclinations that direct him to certain fields of study -yet in line with Weber's view of value neutrality, Rossi's commitment to rigorous research methods and objective interpretation of data has sometimes led him to controversial findings that are not necessarily supportive of his liberal values. Ex: -for example, his measure of the extent of homelessness in Chicago in the mid-1980s fell far below the estimates of the Chicago Coalition for the Homeless. Coalition members bitterly attacked Rossi for hampering their social reform efforts by minimizing the extent of homelessness. Rossi concluded that "in the short term, good social research will often be greeted as a betrayal of one or another side to a particular controversy."
question
If you were planning to do research on human sexuality, which of the seven principles in the ASA's Code of Ethics would particularly concern you? What ethical problems might arise in such a study, and how would you attempt to prevent them?
answer
...
question
Feminist Methodology
answer
-the feminist perspective has had the greatest impact on the current generation of social researchers -although researchers must be objective, their theoretical orientation may influence the questions they ask- or just as important, the questions they fail to ask Ex: -until recently, researchers frequently studied work and the family separately. Yet feminist theorists see the two spheres of activity as being closely integrated. Similarly, work and leisure, paid and unpaid domestic work may be see not as two separate spheres, but as two sides of the same coin. -recently, feminist scholars have become interested in self-injury. research shows that 85% of self-injurers are female; feminist researchers seek to explain why women predominate in this population. Rather than treat the behavior as a medical disorder, they note that society encourages women much more than men to attend to their bodies through hair removal, skin treatments, and depigmentation. given this heightened attention to the female body, feminists suggest that specific instances of victimization can lead women to self-injure. they also seek to better understand male self-injurers, and are testing the hypothesis that among men, self-injury is a manifestation of hyper masculinity in the tolerance of pain -the feminist perspective has also had an impact on global research. to feminist theorists, the traditional distinction between industrial nations and developing nations overlooks the close relationship between these two supposedly separate worlds. feminist theorists have called for more research on the special role that immigrant women play in maintaining their households; on the use of domestic workers from less developed nations by households in industrial nations; and on the global trafficking of sex workers -feminist researchers tend to involve and consult their subjects more than other researcher, and they are more oriented toward seeking change, raising the public consciousness, and influencing policy. they are particularly open to a multidisciplinary approach, such as making use of historical evidence or legal studies
question
Even if women are represented in a study, could the researcher's gender influence the data that are collected? If so, how, and how might the problem be prevented?
answer
...
question
Dave Eberach
answer
-went to Grinnell College, where he took a variety of social sciences courses before settling on sociology as a major -in 1994, he was hired as a research coordinator by the United Way of Central Iowa -in that position he helped to create and implement Iowa's Homeless Management Information System (HMIS), which coordinates data on housing and homeless service providers -he also collaborated with the Human Service Planning Alliance to create and maintain a "data warehouse" of social statistics from diverse sources. -As a research coordinator, he found the data helped him to identify small pockets of poverty that were generally hidden in state and county statistics -today, he works at the Iowa Institute for Community Alliances, a small nonprofit organization that offers computerized client management and on-site program monitoring to homeless and housing service providers -as Associate Director, he oversees a staff of seven and meets with clients who are working to improve service delivery to vulnerable people -having a background in sociology has been helpful to him in systems design. "understanding that systems need to work for a variety of groups of people, not just folks that grew up like I did," he explains, has been very helpful -"the world is not a computer problem or a math problem to be solved," he continues, "but rather a complex environment where groups of people continually bump into one another."
question
geocoded
answer
location specific Ex: real time, geocoded incident reports
question
individual privacy
answer
-one ethical concern raised by all these data involves individual privacy -sociologists now have access to information about people's real estate transactions, campaign contributions, online product purchases, and even travel along tollways -today, 87% of the people in the US can be personally identified given only their gender, date of birth, and ZIP code
question
Male sociologists once overlooked women in their studies of city life. What other groups could easily be overlooked in today's research, and why?
answer
...
question
Lying for Love Online
answer
-today, about 40 million people seek love online, and according to one estimate, 21% of heterosexual couples and 61% of same-sex couples meet online -these people do not always tell the truth -in their profiles, people often describe an idealized self- for example, "I rock climb" -women typically describe themselves as 8.5 pounds heavier than they really are; men, as 2 pounds lighter -men are more likely than women to say they are younger, taller, and wealthier than they really are -less attractive people often post enhanced or retouched photos -women post photos that are an average of 1.5 years old; men post photos that are 6 months old -men are more likely than women to lie about their occupation, education, and relationship status
question
Ogi Ogas and Sai Gaddam
answer
-neuroscientists -they (2011) studied millions of web searches, websites, and videos related to sex -they found that women and men differ decidedly in their preferences, but very little (if any) distinction between heterosexuals and homosexuals, other than their sexual orientation -they could not distinguish between online fantasies and rational desires, or between a single search and one of many repeated searches by the same person. -nevertheless, this cyber study is a step forward in the effort to understand human sexual behavior
question
studying human sexuality
answer
-this is a difficult topic to research, not only because of privacy concerns but because of all the preconceptions, myths, and beliefs people bring to the subject of sexuality -In part, we lack reliable data on patterns of sexual behavior because it is difficult for researchers to obtain accurate information about this sensitive subject -until AIDS emerged in the 1980s, there was little scientific demand for data on sexual behavior, except for specific concerns such as contraception. and even though the AIDS crisis has reached dramatic proportions, government funding for studies of sexual behavior is still controversial and therefore difficult to obtain -the controversy surrounding research on human sexual behavior raises the issue of value neutrality, which becomes especially delicate when one considers the relationship of sociology to the government.
question
"Kinsey Report"
answer
-until the 1990s, the only comprehensive study of sexual behavior was the famous two-volume "Kinsey Report," prepared in the 1940s. -although the Kinsey Report is still widely quotes, the volunteer interviewed for the report were not representative of the nation's adult population
question
National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS)
answer
-sociologists developed the NHSLS to better understand the sexual practices of adults in the US -the researchers raised $1.6 million of private funding to make their study possible -authors of the NHSLS argue that data from their survey allow interest groups to more easily address public policy issues such as AIDS, sexual harassment, welfare reform, sex discrimination, abortion, teenage pregnancy, and family planning -the research findings help to counter some commonsense notions Ex: -for instance, contrary to the common beliefs that women regularly use abortion for birth control and that poor teens are the most likely socioeconomic group to have abortions, researchers found that 3/4 of all abortions are the first for the woman, and the well-educated and affluent women are more likely to have abortions than poor teens
question
tables and figures (graphs)
answer
-allow social scientists to display data and develop their conclusions more easily -one type of summary sociologists use is a cross-tabulation, which shows the relationship between two or more variables -graphs, like tables, can be quite useful to sociologists. -illustrations are often easier for the general public to understand, whether in newspapers or in PowerPoint presentations -as with all data, we nee to be careful how they are presented
question
Theodor Adorno
answer
German philosopher and others have spoken of the worldwide culture industry that standardizes the goods and services demanded by consumers -he contends that globally, the primary effect of popular culture is to limit people's choices -yet others have shown that the culture industry's influence does not always permeate international borders. sometimes the culture industry is embraced; at other times, soundly rejected
question
George Murdock
answer
anthropologist who compiled a list of cultural universals, including athletic sports, cooking, dancing, visiting, personal names, marriage, medicine, religious ritual, funeral ceremonies, sexual restrictions, and trade -the cultural universals Murdock listed may be universal, but the manner in which they are expressed varies from culture to culture
question
William Graham Sumner
answer
sociologist who (1906) coined the term ethnocentrism to refer to the tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others
question
similarity between interactionists, conflict theorists and functionalists
answer
like interactionists, conflict theorists and functionalists believe that people's behavior rather than their genetic structure defines social reality
question
Select 3 cultural universals from George Murdock'a list (page 56) and analyze them from a functionalist perspective. Why are these practices found in every culture? What functions do they serve?
answer
...
question
If you grew up in your parent's generation- without computers, e-mail, MP3 players, and cell phones- how would your daily life differ from the one you lead today?
answer
...
question
George Ritzer
answer
coined the term "McDonalization of society" to describe how the principles of fast-food restaurants, developed in the US, have come to dominate more and more sectors of societies throughout the world Ex: -hair salons and medical clinics now take walk-ins -in Hong Kong, sex selection clinics offer a menu of items, from fertility enhancement to methods of increasing the likelihood of having a child of the desired sex -religious groups- from evangelical preachers on local stations or websites to priests at the Vatican Television Center- use marketing techniques similar to those that are used to sell Happy meals
question
McDonaldization of society
answer
-describe how the principles of fast-food restaurants, developed in the US, have come to dominate more and more sectors of societies throughout the world -McDonaldization is associate with the melding of cultures, through which we see more and more similarities in cultural expression Ex: in Japan, African entrepreneurs have found a thriving market for hip-hop fashions popularized by teens in the US. similarly, the familiar Golden Arches of McDonald's can be seen around the world -Yet corporations like McDonald's have to make some adjustments of their own. (usually for overseas operations) -->Ex: in India, patrons who don't eat beef can order a double chicken-patty sandwich. or in France, baguettes have been added to the menu.
question
Gerhard Lenski
answer
sociologist who has defined technology as "cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires"
question
William F. Ogburn
answer
sociologist who (1922) made a useful distinction between the elements of material and nonmaterial culture -also introduced the term culture lag
question
Name one culturally significant discovery and one culturally significant invention that occurred in your lifetime. Explain how these innovations have affected the culture to which you belong.
answer
...
question
functionalists and conflict theorists
answer
functionalists and conflict theorists agree that variation exists within cultures. -functionalists view subcultures as variations of particular social environments and as evidence that differences can exist within a common culture. -conflict theorists suggest that variations often reflect the inequality of social arrangements within a society. -a conflict theorist would view the challenges to dominant social norms by African American activists, the feminist movement, and the gay rights movement as reflections of inequality base on race, gender, and sexual orientation. -conflict theorists also argue that subcultures sometimes emerge when the dominant society unsuccessfully tried to suppress a practice, such as the use of illegal drugs -they also agree that culture and society are mutually supportive, but for different reasons -functionalists maintain that social stability requires a consensus and the support of society's members; strong central values and common norms provide that support (this view of culture became popular in sociology beginning in the 1950s. it was borrowed from British anthropologists who saw culture traits as a stabilizing element in a culture) -from a functionalist perspective, a cultural trait or practice will persist if it performs functions that society seems to need or contributes to overall social stability and consensus -conflict theorists agree that a common culture may exist, but they argue that it serves to maintain the privileges of certain groups. -moreover, while protecting their self-interest, powerful groups may keep others in a subservient position. (term dominant ideology)
question
You arrive in a developing African count as a Peace Corps volunteer. What aspects of a very different culture do you think would be the hardest to adjust to? What might the citizens of that country fein shocking about your culture?
answer
...
question
linguistic isolation
answer
-in the US, social scientist use the term linguistic isolation to refer to households in which all members age 14 and older speak a non-English language and at the same time do not speak English very well -studies have shown that those who are linguistically isolated are cut off from many public services
question
Do you agree with Sapir and Whorf's hypothesis that language precedes thought? What kind of evidence might you cite to refute their hypothesis? Could language shape our interpretation of reality without preceding thought?
answer
...
question
Donald Black
answer
sociologists who (1995) has termed law "governmental social control," meaning that laws are formal norms enforced by the state
question
You are a high school principle. What norms would you want to given the student's behavior? How might those norms differ from norms appropriate for college students?
answer
...
question
Acceptance of norms
answer
-people do not follow norms, whether mores or folkways, in all situations -in some cases, they can evade a norm because they know it is weakly enforced Ex: -it is illegal for US teenagers to drink alcoholic beverages, yet drinking by minors is common throughout the nation -in some instances, behavior that appears to violate society's norms may actually represent adherence to the norms of a particular group -teenage drinkers are conforming to the standards of their peer group when they violate norms that condemn underage drinking. -business executives who use shady accounting techniques may be responding to a corporate culture that demands the maximization of profits at any cost, including the deception of investors and government regulatory agencies
question
In the US, is the norm of heterosexuality a formal norm or an informal norm? Would you categorize it with mores or folkways? Explain your reasoning?
answer
...
question
Robin Williams
answer
-sociologist who (1970) has offered a list of basic values. -it included achievement, efficiency, material comfort, nationalism, equality, and the supremacy of science and reason over faith
question
Shalom Shwartz
answer
-psychologist Shalom Shwartz has measured values in more than 60 countries -around the world, certain values are widely shared, including benevolence, which is defined as "forgiveness and loyalty." -in contrast, power, defined as "control or dominance over people and resources," is a value that is endorsed much less often -according to his thesis, cultural and religious identities, rather than national or political loyalties, are becoming the prime source of international conflict -critics of this thesis point out that conflict over values is nothing new; only our ability to create havoc and violence has grown
question
"clash of civilization"
answer
-despite this evidence of shared values, some scholars have interpreted the terrorism, genocide, wars, and military occupations of the early 21st century as a "clash of civilization." -speaking of a clash of "civilizations" disguises the sharp divisions that exist within large groups Ex: christianity runs the gamut from Quaker-style pacifism to certain elements of the Ku Klux Klan's ideology
question
Marxist Georg Lukacs and Marxist Antonio Gramsci
answer
This concept of dominant ideology was first used by Hungarian Marxist Georg Lukacs (1923) and Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci (1929), but it did not gain an audience in the US until the early 1970s.
question
Look around your campus. Do the people you see suggest that the US has a core culture with a dominant ideology, or a diverse culture with differing values and ideologies? What about the city or town where you college or university is located- does it suggest the same conclusion?
answer
...
question
bicultural
answer
If the curriculum is also bicultural, children will learn about the mores and folkways of both the dominant culture and the subculture
question
conformity to a single language in the US
answer
-for a long time, people in the US demanded conformity to a single language -this demand coincided with the functionalist view that language serves to unify members of a society -little respect was granted to immigrants' cultural traditions; a young person would often be teased about his or her "funny" name, accent, or style of dress
question
challenges to this pattern of forced obedience to the dominant ideology
answer
-beginning in the 1960s, active movements for Black pride and ethnic pride insisted that people regard the traditions of all racial and ethnic subcultures as legitimate and important. -conflict theorists explain this development as a case of subordinated language minorities seeking opportunities for self-expression -party as a result of these challenges, people began to view bilingualism as an asset. it seems to provide a sensitive way of assisting millions of non-English-speaking people in the US to learn English in order to function more effectively within the society -the perspective of conflict theory also helps us to understand some of the attacks on bilingual programs. many of them stem from an ethnocentric point of view, which that any deviation from the majority it bad. this attitude tends to be expressed by those who wish to stamp out foreign influence wherever it occurs, especially in our schools. it does not take into account that success in bilingual education may actually have beneficial results, such as decreasing the number of high school dropouts and increasing the number of Hispanics in colleges and universities
