Rhetorical Notebook: Terms and Devices – Flashcards

Definition: In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of the structure, meaning or length of the sentence; expresses two or more equal or parallel ideas between phrases of a sentence. Example: "We the People have remained faithful to the ideals of our forbearers, and true to our founding documents." (Barack Obama, First Inaugural Address) Effect: This sentence is an excerpt from Barack Obama's First Inaugural Address. The purpose of his speech was to explain to each American citizen his plans for the next four years. The main idea of the sentence is that as a nation, the United States has honored our previous leaders and documents well. The balanced sentence from his Address uses parallelism between two phrases: "faithful to the ideals of our forbearers" and "true to our founding documents." The two ideas are parallel because they both discuss things from the past, leaders and documents. The structure of these two phrases is also similar. They both start with an adjective and the word "to," and end with a noun.

Definition: A cumulative sentence is one that has an independent clause completing the main idea, at the beginning of the sentence, followed by more information that builds and adds on. Example: "He dipped his hands in the bichloride solution and shook them--a quick shake, fingers down, like the fingers of a pianist above the keys." (Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith, 1925). Effects: The sentence above demonstrates a cumulative sentence because it consists of an independent clause followed by additional information. In this case the device is used to introduce the act first, then build on to it. Overall, this device is used to get the readers attention right away by stating the simple, independent clause, then keep it interesting by adding details. This device is used in many long speeches to liven up the speech in a way. I think it is pretty effective because it catches your attention while getting the point across.

Definition: A sentence structure in which a main clause is followed by one or more coordinate or subordinate phrases and clauses, or basically, a complex sentence in which the main clause is at the beginning. Example(s): "We must complete a structure of peace, so that it will be said of this generation -- our generation of Americans -- by the people of all nations, not only that we ended one war but that we prevented future wars" (Richard M. Nixon, Resignation Address 1974). "As a result of these efforts, I am confident that the world is a safer place today, not only for the people of America but for the people of all nations, and that all of our children have a better chance than before of living in peace rather than dying in war" (Richard M. Nixon, Resignation Address 1974). Effect: These sentences are excerpted from Richard Nixon's 1974 Resignation Address, in which he expressed his distaste for resignation, but acknowledge that it would be in the country's best interest, and that was his primary concern. He also expresses his pride in what the country has accomplished and what he feels it should accomplish yet. By adding on more clauses and phrases to the main clause of the sentence, Nixon restates similar statements with slight variations. This aids in the enforcement of his points, whether it be what the country has done or what it has yet to do. Repetition as well as seemingly thorough sentences build public support within speeches such as Nixon's. By not stopping after the first main clause, Nixon adds dramatic effect as well adds variety by breaking up simple and traditional sentence structures.

Definition: A type of sentence that gives advice or instructions or that expresses a request or command. Example:You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. (Martin Luther King Jr., I Have a Dream Speech Rhetorical Notebook: Hortative Sentences: A hortative sentence is one that exhorts, advises, calls to action, or encourages people to do something. Example: It is our generation's task, then, to reignite the true engine of America's economic growth -- a rising, thriving middle class. (Applause.) It is our unfinished task to restore the basic bargain that built this country -- the idea that if you work hard and meet your responsibilities, you can get ahead, no matter where you come from, no matter what you look like, or who you love. It is our unfinished task to make sure that this government works on behalf of the many, and not just the few; that it encourages free enterprise, rewards individual initiative, and opens the doors of opportunity to every child across this great nation. (Applause.) (Barack Obama, State of the Union Address) Effect: These sentences are excerpted from Martin Luther King's I Have a Dream speech, and President Barack Obama's 2013 State of the Union Address. The I Have a Dream speech is an illustration of Martin Luther King Jr.'s hopes for the future and the race of African American people. The Imperative sentence in this excerpt asks the African American people to be strong and continue suffering because it will not last much longer. He deliberately commands them to "Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive." The fact that he believes that he has such command over his audience allows him to make such commands. On the other hand, Obama uses hortative sentences in his speech because everyone in his audience is not on his side so instead of commanding them to do something, he suggests things. For example, he constantly says "it is our task," which is more a less a persuasion rather than a command. The difference between hortative sentences and imperative sentences is that hortative is urging someone to do something whereas imperative implies a necessary action. These key differences are vital to the speeches because they take into account the projected audience.

Definition: A sentence that is usually not complete, grammatically or logically, until the reader reaches the main clause ("punch line") at the end. (http://www.union.edu/Resources/Academic/writing/Help/loose.php, http://web.cn.edu/Kwheeler/lit_terms_P.html) Examples: A. Presidential Remarks on Early Education The kids we saw today that I had a chance to spend time with in Mary's classroom, they're some of the lucky ones -- because fewer than 3 in 10 four-year-olds are enrolled in a -high-quality preschool program. ~Barack Obama (http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/02/14/remarks-president-early-childhood-education-decatur-ga) B.Remember the Titans-Coach Herman Boone If we don't come together, right now, on this hallowed ground, we too will be destroyed -- just like they were. (http://www.americanrhetoric.com/MovieSpeeches/moviespeechrememberthetitans.html) Effect: In President Obama's Speech in Georgia, he was stressing the importance of a quality education before a child enters kindergarten. A periodic sentence is similar to a drum roll of anticipation leading up to the main point. In the first example from his speech, the main point s the statistic that he places at the end. The emphasis is placed on the fact that not every child is as fortunate as the ones in that town, having kind lady prepare them adequately for kindergarten. The clause before states that these children are lucky, but this clause at the end goes onto explain why with a number that is probably shocking to many listeners. If this had been constructed as a loose sentence instead, some grammatical shuffling might have phrased it as "Research shows that fewer than 3 in 10 four-year-olds are enrolled in a high-quality preschool program, so these kids in Mary's classroom are some of the lucky ones." This main appeal to logic and reasoning gets lost in the shuffle without some sort of pause or time to reflect on the statistic given. The time before the main point in a periodic sentence also allows the audience to become more open to the subject and the speaker's point of view. Opening bluntly and aggressively might seem stronger to supporters, but it could immediately put off opponents and lose their attention and openness to the rest of the text. http://create.arizona.edu/content/lessons-writing-effective-sentences-part-iv-special-types http://www.writingcentre.uottawa.ca/hypergrammar/sntorder.html

Definition: Inversion of the usual syntactical order of words for rhetorical effect. Types of Anastrophe: The verb occurs before the subject-noun. Example: Glistens the dew upon the morning grass. (Or, the dew glistens upon the morning grass). Adjectives after the noun it modifies. Example: She looked at the sky dark and menacing (Normally written as, she looked at the dark and menacing sky). Object before the verb. Example: Will power, they have. (Otherwise stated as, they have will power). Preposition following object. Example: "Our lives upon, to use Our strongest hands." (Instead of, upon our lives). Example: "Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. This much we pledge-- and more." (John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address) Effect: This quote was pulled from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address. The passage explains that Kennedy has intentions of doing anything necessary for the nation to maintain liberty. To add the line "This much we pledge-- and more" rather than "We pledge this much -- and more," is to add emphasis to the price that he is willing to pay, rather than the people pledging it. To keep the sentence short also sends a message of stern certainty, which means that for JFK, America's justice is very important.

Definition: a verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but with the words in reverse grammatical order (A-B-C, C-B-A) Examples: "Hate destroys a man's sense of values and his objectivity. It causes him to describe the beautiful as ugly and the ugly as beautiful, and to confuse the true with the false and the false with the true." -Martin Luther King "When the going gets tough, the tough get going." "All for one and one for all!" "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country." --Pres. John F. Kennedy "You stood up for America. Now America must stand up for you." --President Barack Obama "Got my mind on my money and my money on my mind." -- Snoop Dogg Effects: "Antimetabole" is from the Greek meaning "to turn about in the opposite direction". The repetition involved immediately provides emphasis on the point being made. The focus of the first clause is different from the focus of the second clause due to the reversed word order. It often takes the audience by surprise and is thought-provoking, keeping the audience engaged and forcing them to view things from a different angle. For this reason, antimetaboles tend to have a punchy, significant impact on the reader, which is especially effective in an attempt to motivate the audience. The first clause is used to set up the second clause, where the key message resides. It's as if one is lobbing a pitch to themselves in order to set themselves up to smash it out of the park.

Definition: The repetition of similar vowel sounds, but not necessarily similar consonant sounds. This is a device that is often done subconsciously by authors, and has an effect similar to rhyme. It is essentially a rhythmic device of repetition. Example: "As I was going to St. Ives, I met a man with seven wives/Each wife had seven sacks, each sack had seven cats/Each cat had seven kits: kits, cats, sacks, and wives/How many were going to St. Ives?" (Traditional, As I Was Going to St. Ives) "Wise words from one who knows." (Bill Clinton, Oklahoma City Bombing Memorial Address) Effect: The poem above is a traditional riddle from England, often used as a nursery rhyme for children. The poem uses assonance to create the steady rhythm that is ever so common in traditional sayings. One will notice the similar vowel sounds used in the poem (the "a" sound in sacks and cats; the "i" sound in I, St. Ives and wives). These vowels are the basis for the iambic nature of the majority of the poem, and establish the steadily beating rhythm of the piece. To repeat vowels in this way gives the reader a strong lilt that makes him tap his foot as he reads. In the nonfiction excerpt, Clinton uses the assonance to emphasize the deep message of the words. Using the device creates the similarities within the mind of the reader and calls attention to the phrase. Additionally, the device is used to slow down the speaking and listening pace; the audience and speaker must take more time to adapt to a similar vowel sounds. The similarities place emphasis on words as well. Assonance is one of the strongest rhythmic schemes available to an author and should be used to reinforce points in writing, as it is clear to readers and highlights the words without being as over the top (or as bordering on comical) as plainly rhyming words.

Definition: The repetition of consonants in words stressed in the same place, but with different vowels; a kind of inverted alliteration, in which final consonants, rather than initial or medial ones, repeat in nearby words. If the repeated sound is at the start of the words, it is alliteration. If it is anywhere else, it is consonance. Non-Fiction Example: "Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price..." (JFK) Fiction Example: Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow. My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse near Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year. He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake. The only other sound's the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake. The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep. And miles to go before I sleep. (Robert Frost, Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening) Effect: The non-fiction example is from John F. Kennedy's 1961 inaugural address. Often times, consonance is used to elaborate on the tone of a piece. In this case, it has an impactful mood on the patriotism Kennedy is expressing. Also, by using consonance with opposite words like "well" and "ill", it more effectively expresses the difference between them. The poem (fictional), Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening by Robert Frost, exhibits the tone of a common New England farmer contemplating an everyday site. His constant use of consonance throughout the piece emphasizes certain words and forces the reader to actually stop and think about the ones that have rhyming end sounds. It draws the audience in, providing what could be referred to as a "beat", similar to in music, in order to keep the reader tuned in and captivated. Furthermore, Frost utilizes consonance in a new way each time, preventing his piece from sounding unprofessional, such as in a children's rhyme.

Definition: Figure of omission in which normally occurring conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) are intentionally omitted in successive phrases, or clauses; a string of words not separated by normally occurring conjunctions. Example: "Duty, Honor, Country: Those three hallowed words reverently dictate what you ought to be, what you can be, what you will be. They are your rallying points: to build courage when courage seems to fail; to regain faith when there seems to be little cause for faith; to create hope when hope becomes forlorn." -- General Douglas MacArthur, Thayer Award Acceptance Address Effect: This excerpt displays the overall theme of General Douglas MacArthur's Thayer Award Acceptance Address, which is that people and especially soldiers should live by "Duty, Honor, and Country. " It was directed towards the United States Military Academy cadets of 1962, with the prominent theme: "Duty, Honor, Country." His use of asyndeton lays strength to these words, and shows the audience that these terms are to be given equal weight; they are all as important as the others. It also has the effect of speeding up the pace of the speech; this is a common usage of asyndeton. MacArthur continues to expand upon these ideas with parallelistic asyndeton which lays emphasis on the individual ideas he believes to be essential to soldiers. It is important to note that asyndeton is not necessarily parallelistic by nature, but can be very effective when it is. Successive cases of asyndeton can dramatically make pace of the speech quicker, make the tone more serious, or give focus to ideas.

Definition: A rhetorical term for a sentence style that uses several conjunctions in close succession. This is used with a list or a series. It places a conjunction (and, or) after every term in the list (except, of course, the last). Antonym: asyndeton Example: "Let the whitefolks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly--mostly--let them have their whiteness." (Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, 1969) "The canneries rumble and rattle and squeak until the last fish is cleaned and cut and cooked and canned and then the whistles scream again and the dripping, smelly, tired Wops and Chinamen and Polaks, men and women, straggle out and droop their ways up the hill into the town and Cannery Row becomes itself again--quiet and magical." (John Steinbeck, Cannery Row, 1945) Effect: The effect of polysyndeton is twofold--to add a dramatic effect and to indicate a list. The two examples given, excerpts from I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and Cannery Row had a particular audience in mind. And all three examples were, oftentimes, presented in front of a crowd or live audience. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a renowned poem, which is often read or quoted on stages across the country. Cannery Row, a novel by John Steinbeck, was actually turned into a cinema and a play. Both were presented to an audience; the "ands" and lists reiterate their points. It indicates a list to the audience, emphasizing each and every point. It also adds a seemingly rhythmic quality to what the speaker is listing, creating a tempo to the sentence. It increases the speed of how it is read. For example, take the sentence from I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. If it was read without polysyndeton, it would be read as, "Let the whitefolks have their money, power, segregation, sarcasm, big houses, schools, lawns like carpets, books, and mostly, whiteness." Since Angelou added the effects of polysyndeton,, it is now read with an increase of speed and flow to the words listed. Although the use of this isn't proper grammar, technically, for a dialogue, it clearly defines each point or word. Through speech, it is seen as most effective, whereas on paper, it seems redundant.

Definition: the omission from a sentence or other construction of one or more words that would complete or clarify the construction using ——, ..., or * * *. Example: "The doctor told me after my illness ..." (Leo Tolstoy, Anna Karenina) Effect: This was a sentence is from Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, a book that covers many inter familial and political issues, published in installments between 1873 and 1877. An ellipsis is used to add dramatic effect to a line of dialogue; in this case to imply that something is wrong. In context, the character, Anna, is implying to someone that because of her illness, she'll never be able to have children. Although she doesn't directly state that she can't bear children, there is an uncertainty and the reader is left knowing that something is missing. When she is talking to another character about it and trails off before finishing, the reader picks up on the importance of the unspoken words, and draws conclusions from that.

Definition: deliberate exaggeration of a person, thing, quality, event to emphasize a point external to the object of exaggeration; intentional exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Example: from Paul Bunyan's opening remarks in the American folktale Babe, the Blue Ox: "Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before." Effect: This excerpt comes from the American folk tale, Babe the Blue Ox by Paul Bunyan. This hyperbole begins the story by describing the winter in which the story takes place. Here the hyperbole is used as an opener to describe the setting, but also sets the tone for the rest of the story. Fictional pieces use hyperboles to give the characters personality and are usually used to be humorous. They are also used to emphasize points that may be important or significant to the rest of the story. Hyperboles act as an extravagant comparison; here, it is evident that words cannot freeze, but it is comparing it to a night so frigid that words would freeze.

Definition: The act or an instance of placing two or more things side by side; the state of being so placed for the purpose of comparison. Example: "Injustice everywhere is a threat to justice everywhere" --Martin Luther King Jr. (Letter from a Birmingham Jail, 1963) Effect: This is a quote that was said by Martin Luther King Jr. which was written in his Letter from a Birmingham Jail. By using juxtaposition, he can compare the opposites of justice and injustice to create his point that the the more injustice there is in the world, soon there will be less and less justice.Martin Luther King Jr. was the biggest advocate for equality, so by placing the two opposites in the same sentence, he is also able to make injustice seem like threat to the wellbeing of people in America and worldwide. So juxtaposition is a key in this quote because it exaggerates the point he was trying to make.

Definition: A deliberate understatement, usually done by negating the opposite of what one is trying to prove. For example, saying a feat is "no small accomplishment" is actually saying that it is quite a large accomplishment; it is just being stated by denying the opposite, that it is "not small". Examples: "Mr. Smith isn't really young anymore." "Her cousin was no genius." "Of course, our challenges don't end with al Qaeda. America will continue to lead the effort to prevent the spread of the world's most dangerous weapons." --President Obama's 2013 State of the Union Address (Feb. 12, 2013) "Well, here's where I've been, Jake. I've been President of the United States dealing with the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression, an auto industry on the verge of collapse, two wars. I don't think I've been on vacation." --President Obama's Press Conference on Preventing Gun Violence (Dec. 19, 2012) Effect: The first example comes from President Obama's 2013 State of the Union Address, an annual address in which the current president talks about his political priorities and agenda, as well the condition of the country. His audience is a joint session of Congress, and since the address is televised, the public as well. This first example of litotes comes after President Obama details some of his joint efforts with Congress in counterterrorism. Most of these efforts have been specific to fighting al Qaeda. However, by saying that terrorism doesn't "end with al Qaeda," the president is really saying that the country's challenges continue far beyond al Qaeda. What this does is remind his audience (Congress and the public) not to just get caught up in one facet of terrorism, but to remember the whole issue, and that he will continue to make responsible decisions to fight terrorism from all directions. The second example comes during a press conference on gun violence President Obama makes five days after the tragedy in Newtown, Connecticut. After the initial speech to the press, the president takes questions individually from each reporter there. One reporter tells the president that it seems as if during his first term, the president didn't talk much about gun violence, even though there were countless acts of mass gun violence that occurred. The reporter, whose name is Jake, says that Obama had a position on gun violence, but wasn't very active about it. Jake finishes his question with an accusatory "Where have you been?" The president addresses this question by detailing all the things he himself had to deal with during his first term as president. He then says "I don't think I've been on vacation." By saying this, refuting the opposite idea that he has been sitting back and relaxing, he is actually saying that he has been very, very busy.

Definition: A whole represented by a part (species/genus) or vice versa. Off-branch of metonymy. "Get your horns up!" -referring to the band players by "horns" "Strings, I need you to play now" -referring to the orchestra by "strings" "Listen, you've got to come take a look at my new set of wheels." -wheels are a part of the car "He shall think differently," the musketeer threatened, "when he feels the point of my steel." -the sword, the species, is represented by referring to its genus, "steel" Textual example: Obama's First Inaugural Address: "Nor is the question before us whether the market is a force for good or ill. Its power to generate wealth and expand freedom is unmatched, but this crisis has reminded us that without a watchful eye, the market can spin out of control. The nation cannot prosper long when it favors only the prosperous. The success of our economy has always depended not just on the size of our Gross Domestic Product, but on the reach of our prosperity; on the ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart -- not out of charity, but because it is the surest route to our common good." Effects: These two examples are from the same paragraph in Barack Obama's First Inaugural Address, given on January 20, 2009. His overall purpose is to convince the American people that they made the right choice in electing him into office and that the challenges America faces will be met. He creates a motivational but serious tone by his use of various rhetorical devices. In the first example, by using a synecdoche, Obama puts emphasis on the need to control the economy and how hard it is to do so. Instead of just saying "we need to really pay attention to the economy," he effectively uses a synecdoche to exaggerate his point. One way synecdoche is used to exaggerate his point is through use of vivid imagery. When reading this example, one might envision an all-seeing eye (think Lord of the Rings) that protects the economy from becoming a mess of money and mortgages and fees and banks and people all jumbled together. Imagery is easier to understand than straight up facts, so the synecdoche is effectively used to present his argument that the market economy is not something that you can just let loose and not be watchful of. In the second example, he is emphasizing two things: that the government is willing to help out those who need help, and that there are lots of people in America who are ready and capable to work, they just need an opportunity to do so. By saying "heart" instead of "person," the phrase seems more friendly and sympathetic, and it is also easier to envision. This phrase might create an image in the reader's mind of government officials handing out actual bags of money and job applications to thousands of actual hearts, which are all just waiting in line for the opportunity to come.

Definition: Reference to something/someone by naming one of its attributes or another word which it is closely associated with. Difference between synecdoche and metonymy: in metonymy, the word you use is linked to the concept you're really talking about, but isn't actually a part of it. Basically, it uses something more generally or loosely associated with a concept to stand in for it. (World wide words website) "The pen is mightier than the sword." The pen is an attribute of thoughts that are written with a pen; the sword is an attribute of military action "We await word from the crown." The crown represents the royalty--probably the king or queen. Textual example: "So let us mark this day with remembrance, of who we are and how far we have traveled. In the year of America's birth, in the coldest of months, a small band of patriots huddled by dying campfires on the shores of an icy river. The Capitol was abandoned. The enemy was advancing. The snow was stained with blood." Effects: This example is also from Barack Obama's First Inaugural Address, which he gave on January 20, 2009. His purpose is to remind the people how far this country has come since George Washington's time. His tone throughout the piece is motivational and serious. In the example, he says that "the Capitol was abandoned." In almost all cases, the Capitol refers to the legislative branch of U.S. (federal) government. "The Capitol" is associated with the representatives and members of Congress that live in Washington D.C. and work to pass laws in order to better the United States. Obama is not referring to the literal Capitol Building in Washington, D.C., instead, he is referring to what the Capitol stands for. The use of metonymy here helps to reiterate his point about patriotism and togetherness and America. This example is an example of metonymy and not synecdoche because it does not refer to a part of something that represents a whole, or vice versa. The Capitol does not represent the legislative branch, it is associated with the legislative branch. It literally stands for the Capitol Building where the U.S. Congress meets, but usually, when referring to "the Capitol," one is talking about the government officials who work there.

Definition: A statement that employs an apparent contradiction but in reality expresses some measure of truth. Though it may seem ridiculous at one level, it conjures a new way of seeing or understanding at a deeper level. Example: "Paradox has been defined as 'Truth standing on her head to attract attention.' But it must be admitted that writers, like other mendicants and mountebanks, frequently do try to attract attention. They set out conspicuously, in a single line in a play, or at the head or tail of a paragraph, remarks of this challenging kind; as when Mr. Bernard Shaw wrote: 'The Golden Rule is that there is no Golden Rule'; or Oscar Wilde observed: 'I can resist everything except temptation'; or as a duller scribe (not to be named with these and now doing penance for his earlier vices in the nobler toil of celebrating the virtues of Mr. Pond) said in defense of hobbies and amateurs and general duffers like himself: 'If a thing is worth doing, it's worth doing badly.' To these things do writers sink."-G.K. Chesterton, When Doctors Agree. Effect: These paradoxes are from an excerpt from the book, When Doctors Agree, by G.K. Chesterton. The excerpt describes certain instances when paradoxes are used and the types of authors who use them. Chesterton is speaking to aspiring writers and other authors and informing them on what to avoid when writing their own papers. Chesterton appears to disprove of using paradoxes in writing. He uses a very formal tone to get his point across and inform the reader about paradoxes and the problems they can create. Chesterton's use of almost ridiculous paradoxes show his disdain for this rhetorical device, but this excerpt also shows great examples of paradoxes and their true purpose. Paradoxes are created explicitly so that the reader stops to think about what the author is saying. They cannot just take at face value what the author is saying, but instead must slow down to understand the true meaning and reach a deeper understanding.

Definition: Insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow. Example: "That's why Democrats, Republicans, business leaders, and economists have already said that these cuts, known here in Washington as 'the sequester,' are a really bad idea." (Barack Obama, State of Union Address). Effect: This sentence is an excerpt from President Obama's 2013 State of the Union Address in which he spoke to Congress and millions of Americans about the ups and downs of this past year. In this speech, President Obama focused a great deal on the economic struggles that the nation has worked against. Ranging from the public scare of the 'fiscal cliff' to the looming 'sequester' deadline, the inability of Congress to reach across partisan lines caused great frustration in Washington and across the nation. President Obama did not have the luxury to assume anything about his audience's understanding of current Congressional workings. His use of parenthesis serves to educate his listeners, ensuring they can grasp what he's talking about. In addition, mentioning the sequester would help the current listeners track the ensuing progress of compromising legislation. Perhaps some audience members would then feel empowered to contact their Congressional Representative and put in their two cents, so to speak. This insertion also has an effect on Obama's tone in his address, painting him as a benevolent leader rather than an aloof commander. At a time when President Obama needed all the support he could get from the American people, it was important for him to portray himself in a gentle manner. With the force of his post-election backers Obama hoped to pressure Congress to fulfill his agenda. There are few instances of parenthesis throughout President Obama's State of the Union address; therefore, this sentence was strategically crafted to inform his listeners that the impending budget cuts would be a "really bad idea."

Definition: a question used to make a point without the expectation of a reply; these questions force the reader to consider a certain viewpoint or response, and to agree with the speaker as if it were their own idea. Example - From the perspective of a single day, including this day of dedication, the issues and questions before our country are many. From the viewpoint of centuries, the questions that come to us are narrowed and few. Did our generation advance the cause of freedom? And did our character bring credit to that cause? These questions that judge us also unite us, because Americans of every party and background, Americans by choice and by birth, are bound to one another in the cause of freedom. We have known divisions, which must be healed to move forward in great purposes - and I will strive in good faith to heal them. Effect - This excerpt is from President George W. Bush's 2005 inaugural address. He uses this speech to briefly explain his goals for the country and also provide reassurance that America will thrive under his administration. The beginning of this excerpt explains that America is still not perfect, and issues like racism, individual freedom, and national security are still under construction. He then uses two rhetorical questions to urge the audience to look back on whether or not America has been successful in dealing with these issues so far. The first question simply asks whether or not America has made progress towards promoting freedom; the second question asks how America's general attitude has been in response to these changes. For example, did America reduce segregation willingly? or is it still a bitter subject? Bush is trying to make Americans reflect on the past but also look to trying to improve the future. He wants the audience to actually desire to enhance freedom in America. The nation needs to embrace and support the changes in order to successfully move forwards to a brighter future. His objective in this speech is to make a point that he will be able to lead the country towards freedom, and his hope is that Americans will put their faith in him for the next four years.

Definition: literary & Literary Critical Terms) a figure of speech in which a word is used to modify or govern two or more words although appropriate to only one of them or making a different sense with each, as in the sentence Mr. Pickwick took his hat and his leave (Charles Dickens) Example:"He carried a strobe light and the responsibility for the lives of his men." The Things They Carried by Tim O'Brien "But Ted Lavender, who was scared, carried 34 rounds when he was shot and killed outside Than Khe, and he went down under an exceptional burden, more than 20 pounds of ammunition, plus the flak jacket and helmet and rations and water and toilet paper and tranquilizers and all the rest, plus an unweighed fear." The Things They Carried by Tim O'Brien Effect: Tim O'Brien used Zeugma because it added a story like feeling to the novel " The Things They Carried. It starts with a real thing they carry, but then ends on a emotional or intangible weight they carry. The whole book is in fact based around this principle, as the author carried emotional baggage from the time he spent in Vietnam into his life after the war and used it to write his stories. The real reason he wanted to give the novel a story like narrative was because sometimes a story is more real than the truth. At least that's how he explains it throughout the novel. Using zeugma can add a serious or humorous twist to any sentence. For instance killing time and the clock.

Definition: A series of words, phrases, clauses that are arranged side by side, making their structure similar. Example: "I've tried to offer leadership to the Democratic Party and the Nation. If, in my high moments, I have done some good, offered some service, shed some light, healed some wounds, rekindled some hope, or stirred someone from apathy and indifference, or in any way along the way helped somebody, then this campaign has not been in vain." (Jesse Jackson, 1984 Democratic National Convention Address) Effect: This excerpt by civil rights activist Jesse Jackson is found in the keynote address at the 1984 Democratic National convention. In this address, Jackson concedes the presidential nomination to Walter Mondale and promises to support his candidacy in an attempt to create unity within the Democratic party. The speech in its entirety was passionate and worked to inspire an alliance of Democrats that could face up to the challenges of race relations. The parallelism in this excerpt is evident in Jackson's extended list of his good deeds. This rhetorical device works to provide rhythm and clarity. His ideas are presented in a simple format that allows listeners to understand the point he is trying to get across. He is compelling his audience to see him as an approachable person that has gotten into politics to help others. His repeated format- "done some good, offered some service, shed some light, heal some wounds"- is effective in presenting his notable qualities in a way that does not appear boastful, but rather humble and with a desire to cure the ails of America's people. The use of parallelism emphasizes Jackson's message by portraying himself as a good man in a way that provides both clarity and a rhythmic sound.

Definition: A series of similarly structured elements having the same length. A kind of parallelism. An isocolon is a figure of speech which uses a form of symmetry, creating a pattern in the expression. This is mainly used for rhetorical effect, but has produced a lot of very memorable, grammatically efficient expressions. The pattern also includes some rhythmic elements, because of either consonance or the development of syllable patterns. Isocolon is one of the most common and important rhetorical figures, is the use of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases similar in length and parallel in structure. Examples: 1. Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered) -Julius Caesar 2. Note: This example also demonstrates asyndeton, tricolon, and (in the Latin), alliteration and homoioptoton. 3. We will fight them on the beaches, we will fight them in the streets (Winston Churchill) 4. Ask not what your country can do for you; Ask what you can do for your country. (John F. Kennedy) 5. "Nothing that's beautiful hides its face. Nothing that's honest hides its name." (Orual in Till We Have Faces: A Myth Retold by C.S. Lewis. Geoffrey Bles, 1956) 6. "Come then: let us to the task, to the battle, to the toil--each to our part, each to our station. Fill the armies, rule the air, pour out the munitions, strangle the U-boats, sweep the mines, plow the land, build the ships, guard the streets, succor the wounded, uplift the downcast, and honor the brave." (Winston Churchill, speech given in Manchester, England, on Jan. 29, 1940) 7. "...government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth." (Abraham Lincoln, "Gettysburg Address") Effect: The phrase, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country" is excerpted from President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address, which he delivered on January 20, 1961. Kennedy's inauguration speech is widely considered as one of the best presidential inauguration speeches in American history. Taking office after Dwight Eisenhower, Kennedy assumed the position as the the second youngest elected president in American history. The isocolon evident in this excerpt uses a form of parallelism that creates a rhythm in the sentence that draws the audience's attention to the sentence as it is being read aloud. Kennedy's inaugural speech was all about what he planned to do for the country and how the people of America could expect his administration to do great things. In addition to his administration doing great things, he wanted Americans to look within and see the things that they could do for the country as well. In order to get this message across to the people of America, he used the rhetorical strategy isocolon to create a rhythmic and symmetrical feel to the sentence so it would be memorable and it would stick in the minds of many Americans. As you read the sentence, it flows nicely as it is spoken by Kennedy and can be easily understood by all who hears it. Also, if you are reading the sentence, it is easily comprehensible.

Tricolon: Three parallel elements of the same length occurring together in a series. Originally meant to be a verb of the same length and sound. Two different types of tricolon - ascending and descending. ○ In the ascending tricolon, the elements lengthen ○ In the descending tricolon, the elements shorten Example 1: "May God bless our troops, may God bless America, and may God bless Iraq..." (Leon Panetta, Speech at U.S. Forces-Iraq End of Mission Ceremony) Example 2: "Stronger families. Stronger communities. A stronger America." (Barack Obama, Fourth Presidential State of the Union Address) Example 3: "Veni, vidi, vici." (Julius Caesar) ("I came; I saw; I conquered." However, the English is not a true tricolon, for its verbs are not all the same length, as is the case in the Latin) Effect: The first two examples are both derived from political speeches, the former addressing the removal of U.S. troops from Iraq and the latter addressing the current State of the Union. Both quotes use tricolons to put emphasis on a particular subject. In fact, the human brain seems to absorb and remember information more effectively when it is presented in threes. In Panetta's speech, he uses the descending tricolon as each element following "may God bless..." becomes shorter in length. He uses this as a closing to his speech to make it more memorable to his audience.. In Obama's State of the Union Address, he uses the tricolon "stronger..." to highlight goals he has for families, communities, and America to make a specific point. However, the best example of a tricolon, even though it is not part of a prose piece, is the famous quote from Julius Caesar, "I came; I saw; I conquered" when converted to Latin - "Veni, vidi, vici."

Definition: A rhetorical term for the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. Example: "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.' I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." - Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" Speech Effect: This example of anaphora is taken from Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have A Dream" speech. He uses repetition in the beginning of his lines for emphasis, stressing his hopefulness and his enthusiasm towards the nation changing for the better one day. The repetition also has the effect of empowering and motivating the audience because every time he begins a thought with, "I have a dream..." he reinforces his message and adds more detail and passion. Lastly, anaphora sounds good in a speech, and is memorable -- It makes the listeners think about what they've heard.

Definition: Figure of repetition that occurs when the last word or terms in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of the next sentence, clause, or phrase. Example: "When your cable company keeps you on hold, you get angry. When you get angry, you go blow off steam. When you go blow off steam, accidents happen. When accidents happen,you get an eye patch. When you get an eye patch, people think you're tough. When people think you're tough, people want to see how tough. And when people want to see how tough, you wake up in a roadside ditch. Don't wake up in a roadside ditch: Get rid of cable and upgrade to DIRECTV" ( DIRECTV Ad, 2012) Effect: This quote is from a DIRECTV commercial in which they are attempting to convince their audience that if the audience does not buy DIRECTV than terrible things will happen. The commercial follows a train of thought of what could happen if you are on hold with your cable company. The commercial uses anadiplosis to aid in the flow of the sequence of events and help the audience see the connection between being on hold with the cable company and waking up in a roadside ditch. Example: "Without a healthy economy, we can't have a healthy society. And without a healthy society, the economy won't stay healthy for long." — Margaret Thatcher, Conservative Party Address, 10 October 1980 Effect: Margaret Thatcher uses anadiplosis to connect the two ideas. She is saying that a healthy economy is vital to a healthy society and in order for the economy to stay healthy there has to be a healthy society. She is showing the cause-effect relationship between a healthy society and a healthy economy. The use of anadiplosis helps her audience to follow the thought process.

Definition: A rhetorical device in which the order of words is reversed in the second of two parallel phrases. Example: "Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country." (John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Inaugural Address) Effect: This sentence is an excerpt from President John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address. In this speech, Kennedy explores what must be done in order to rid the world of tyranny. He employs many different strategies, but the one that seems to stand out is the above example. It is considered by many to be the most memorable part of the speech. The reason it works so well is because it seems to be the culmination of the point that Kennedy is working towards--his point is that Americans must band together to fight a common enemy. It is also at the end of the speech; its purpose in this position is to place importance on President Kennedy's ideas of unity. Chiasmus is often used in other pieces to display order or balance. It accomplishes this by establishing rhythm. The sense of rhythm in chiasmus serves to make it stand out, making the ideas conveyed important. This rhythmic balance is used to express truths--such as Kennedy's in his Inaugural Address. One would use chiasmus to express an important idea in a striking way.

Definition: Figure of repetition in which words or phrases or sentences are arranged in order of increasing intensity or importance, often in parallel construction; words or phrases arranged by degrees of increasing significance. Example: "For us, they packed up their few worldly possessions and traveled across oceans in search of a new life. For us, they toiled in sweatshops, and settled the West, endured the lash of the whip, and plowed the hard earth. For us, they fought and died in places like Concord and Gettysburg, Normandy and Khe Sahn." Effect: This example is taken from President Obama's inaugural speech in 2009. His speech centered around the slogan "Change We Need" that was used throughout his campaign. He was widely celebrated as the first African American president of the United States and a symbol of change from his Republican predecessor, George W. Bush. Obama embodied youthful energy and transition at a time of economic despair, and inspired more confidence than his immediate predecessors. The excerpt builds climax through the intensity of its verbs and consecutive usage of the words "for us". This emphasizes his message of togetherness that the country will need to demonstrate in order to fix the late-2000s financial crisis. By using the word "us" he is portraying his role of being an American citizen along with the rest of the U.S. population, which shows his determination to be apart of the country and not just the President. The "they" he is referring to are "the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things -- some celebrated, but more often men and women obscure in their labor -- who have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom", which clearly shows his appreciation towards the working class of America that has kept the country alive during hard times.

Definition: repeating the initial word or words of a sentence or clause at the end of that same sentence or clause. Examples: "Next time there won't be a next time." --Phil Leotardo in The Sopranos "The man who did the waking buys the man who was sleeping a drink; the man who was sleeping drinks it while listening to a proposition from the man who did the waking." --Jack Sparrow, The Pirates of the Caribbean Textual example: Elie Wiesel, Speech at Buchenwald Concentration Camp, 4 June 2009 "You spoke of humanity, Mr. President -- though unto us, in those times it was human to be inhuman. And now the world has learned, I hope. And of course this hope includes so many of what now will be your vision for the future, Mr. President: a sense of security for Israel; a sense of security for its neighbors, to bring peace in that place. The time must come. It's enough -- enough to go to cemeteries, enough to weep for orphans -- it's enough. There must come a moment, a moment of bringing people together." Effects: This is a speech given by Elie Wiesel, who is a survivor of the holocaust. He gave this speech in order to inspire the president, of which nation I'm not sure (possibly Germany), to look ahead to the future instead of reflecting on the holocaust seventy years after the fact, and to support Isreal (and the Jews) in the future. The epanalepsis is used to add emphasis to the phrase by repeating it on both sides of the sentence it's directed towards. Saying it before the phrase sets up the sentence, but saying it again reminds the audience of the point after the sentence is given, therefore driving home the main idea in twice. This is used to evoke an emotional response from the audience. In this case, Wiesel evokes a feeling of sorrow in the main part on the sentence, but at the beginning and end his epanalepsis modifies the sentence to give it more of a hopeful feel--the message is that they have done what they can for the people of the past, and now they can do so much more for the future.

Definition (Origin: ἐπιστροφή, meaning "turning about") Ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words. (www.rhetoric.byu.edu) Examples ● "What lies behind us and what lies before us is tiny compared to what lies within us." (Emerson) ● "When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child." (1 Corinthians 13:11) ● "... that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." (Lincoln) ● "I scream, you scream, we all scream for ice cream!" (Fred Waring) Effect: The song I Scream, You Scream, We All Scream for Ice Cream is an old classic in American music literature. Performed by the Waring's Pennsylvanians Band in 1927, this song idolizes the spirit of youthfulness in a roaring America. The artist uses upbeat lyrics to share with his fans the fun times had by young adults everywhere (Listen to the song here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fr6cJxgxi2I). The epistrophe is a useful tool to use in this song, as the repetition of the word "scream" gives the phrase a cadence. The epistrophic rhythm has a style that is bouncy and light, symbolizing the carefree bliss of a young adult. It also stressing the word "scream", and that the men singing are very excited for their ice cream. This phrase, paired with the spirited melody of the song, effectively portrays the youthful vigor in each and every person.