question

Variable

answer

Measurable quantities that change under different circumstances rather than remaining constant.

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Empirical research is concerned with the relationship between variables. True or False?

answer

True.

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Independent Variable

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A variable in an experiment that is controlled and manipulated by the researcher to see what effect it has on subsequent behavior.

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The IV is represented on the X or Y axis?

answer

The X axis.

question

Dependent Variable

answer

A variable whose value is affected by the value of an independent variable; the observed effect.

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The DV is represented by the X or Y axis?

answer

The Y axis.

question

What is the equation to measure the relationship between the independent and dependent variables?

answer

y=a+bx Dependent = Y Intercept + Slope(Independent)

question

What is the relationship between the variables in a positive linear function?

answer

A positive linear function yields a positive relationship between variables: when X increases, so does Y.

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What is the relationship between the variables in a negative linear function?

answer

A negative linear function yields a negative relationship between variables: when X increases, Y decreases.

question

Experimental Research.

answer

This type of research allows us to draw quantitatively based conclusions about cause and effect; Looking for predictable relations among variables

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Active Variable

answer

Or "Independent Variable," is a variable that can be manipulated by the experimenter.

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Attribute Variable

answer

Variables that cannot be manipulated, because they are attributes of the individual that are preexisting.

question

Give examples of attribute variables.

answer

Age, height, gender, race, intelligence, a disorder like SLI.

question

Continuous Variable

answer

Variables that may be measured along some type of dimension. Measured on a scale Values change rather smoothly

question

Give examples of continuous variables.

answer

Age, vocal intensity, temperature, GPA

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Categorical Variables

answer

Variables that can only be categorized, or named; cannot be measured along a continuum

question

Give examples of categorical variables.

answer

Type of dysphagia, eye color

question

Name the 3 types of Experimental Research.

answer

Bivalent Multivalent Parametric

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Bivalent Experimental Research (+give example)

answer

Experimenter studies the effects of two values; of 1 IV and 1 DV e.g., yes/no, presence/absence/ noise/no noise

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Multivalent Experimental Research (+give example)

answer

Experimenter studies the effect of several values of that IV; at least 3 values must be present. e.g., chocolate consumption (low, med, high) and weight gain

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Parametric Experimental Research (+give example)

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Experimenter is examining the simultaneous effect of more than one IV on a DV; two or more IVs running concurrently

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Interaction Effect

answer

The interaction of the first IV and parameter (second IV) on the DV in a parametric design.

question

Describe the (two) different types of effects the IVs can have on the DV in a parametric experimental research design.

answer

During the interaction effect, one IV will have a more pronounced effect on the DV; this is the main effect. The other, less pronounced effect is the interaction.

question

Interaction effect can only be observed when two or more IV are studied simultaneously. True or False?

answer

True.

question

Name some advantages of Experimental Research

answer

-Can observe cause and effect relationships quantitatively -Can repeat observations under same conditions -Can control events to make observations on our own time.

question

Name some disadvantages of Experimental Research.

answer

-A single study does not prove a cause and effect relationship. -Need multiple repetitions to prove that there is a relationship. -Always some level of artificiality -Unethical to conduct many experiments -No 2 participants are the same

question

How many studies does it take to disprove a theory?

answer

Only one study.

question

Descriptive Research

answer

Conducted to observe group differences, developmental trends, or relationships among observable variables that can be measured by the researcher; observation of what exists without manipulation of the IV.

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How are participants assigned to groups in descriptive research?

answer

Participants are self-assigned based on inherent characteristics

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We can also establish cause and effect relationships with descriptive research. True or False?

answer

False.

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Name the two variables present in descriptive research studies.

answer

Attribute (or classification, like IV) and Criterion (or predicted, like DV)

question

Name the six types of descriptive research.

answer

Comparative Descriptive Research Developmental " Correlational " Retrospective " Survey " Case Study "

question

Comparative Descriptive Research

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Measures the behavior of 2 or more types of subjects at one point in time, to draw conclusions about their similarities or differences.

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Name 3 types of Comparative Descriptive Research.

answer

Bivalent Multivalent Parametric

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Bivalent Comparative Descriptive Research

answer

Selection of participants from different classifications E.g., children vs. adults

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Multivalent Comparative Descriptive Research

answer

Comparison of 3 or more groups that are classified among some type of continuum. e.g., groups with mild/moderate/severe phonological delays

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Parametric Comparative Descriptive Research

answer

Groups that differ with respect to 2 or more classification variables. e.g., comparing gestures and word development in children with downs syndrome vs. normally developing children

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Developmental Descriptive Research

answer

Measuring changes of behavior or characteristics of people over time to examine the influence of aging.

question

Name the 3 subdivisions of Developmental Research.

answer

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal Semi-Longitudinal

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Cross-Sectional Developmental Descriptive Research

answer

Have a selection of subjects from different age groups for observation for observation of differences among average behaviors or characteristics of the groups. e.g., look at effect of noise exposure over 3, 6, 8, 15 yrs

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages to the cross-sectional design.

answer

Adv: less expensive and time consuming than longitudinal Disadv: may not be able to attribute changes to age alone, as people have varying life experiences, and we are (over)generalizing results.

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Longitudinal Developmental Descriptive Research

answer

Follow and measure the same subjects over a period of time; looking for age related and behavioral changes.

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal studies.

answer

Adv: can naturally observe changes over time Disadv: expensive, time consuming, attrition

question

Semi-Longitudinal Developmental Descriptive Research

answer

(or Cohort Sequential) divides the total age-span of the study into several overlapping age groups e.g., 0-6yrs, 3-9yrs

question

Name some advantages of semi-longitudinal design

answer

Adv: observe naturally occurring changes in same subjects, compare changes to other groups, less expensive than longitudinal Disadv: making an assumption/overgeneralization based on results

question

Correlational Descriptive Research

answer

The study of the relationship among 2 or more variables by examining the degree to which changes in one variable corresponds with or predicts changes in another.

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages of correlational descriptive research.

answer

Adv: can be used to estimate the amt. of variation in the DV that may result from an attribute variable. Disadv: correlation does not imply causation; extraneous variables to contribute to results

question

Retrospective Descriptive Research

answer

To examine data that we already have on file before the formulation of a research experiment.

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages of retrospective research.

answer

Adv: saves time, cheap, try to establish source of problem without causing the problem, data has already been collected Disadv: validity issues, no control over participant selection or data collection procedures or methods of measurement

question

Survey Descriptive Research

answer

Administration of a verbal, written, over-the-phone, or face-to-face survey. Interactive (rather than observation) Used to provide a detailed inspection of the prevalence of conditions, practices, or attitudes in a given env. e.g., questionnaires

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages of survey research.

answer

Adv: may be only means of getting certain responses (socially sensitive issues) Disadv: poor content validity, accuracy (bias, lies), poor response volume

question

Case Study Descriptive Research

answer

Look at individual(s) in a certain type of situation; want to reveal certain principes that might be overlooked

question

Name some advantages and disadvantages of case studies.

answer

Adv: reveal important, in depth info that may have been overlooked in group-design studies. Disadv: no generalize-ability, usually outliers

question

From a statistical standpoint, what is the weakest type of study?

answer

Case Study (Descriptive Research)

question

What are some advantages to conducting descriptive research designs?

answer

Allows researchers to study variables that can not be manipulated experimentally.

question

What are some disadvantages to conducting descriptive research designs?

answer

Can not develop conclusions about cause and effect relationships Can not overgeneralize or assume that this relationship exists outside of the test population

question

Combined Studies

answer

Investigate the effect of manipulation of one or more IVs on the performance of participants who have been selected based on attribute variables, such as age, gender or pathology.

question

Single Subject Research Design

answer

To provide data concerning the typical behavior of individual subjects under an experimental condition. Not necessary to assume that each subject will respond similarly to experimental conditions. Necessary for each subject to be run more than once under each experimental condition.

question

Group Research Design

answer

To provide data concerning the behavior of the typical member of a group under an experimental condition. Necessary to assume that the subjects are going to respond similarly in an experimental condition Not necessary for subjects to be run more than once

question

Between Subjects Design

answer

The performance of separate groups are measured and the comparisons are made between the groups.

question

Name the 3 types of experimental between subject design.

answer

Bivalent Multivalent Parametric

question

Bivalent Experimental Between Subject Design

answer

One experimental group is compared to one control group to study the effect of the experimental treatment.

question

Parametric Experimental Between Subject Design

answer

Several groups can receive different values of different IVs in different combinations

question

Name the 3 types of descriptive between subject design

answer

Bivalent Descriptive Btw Subj Design Multivalent Parametric

question

Bivalent Descriptive Between Subject Design

answer

To study the presence or absence of a treatment; only 2 groups. e.g., normal hearing vs. deaf

question

Multivalent Descriptive Between Subjects Design

answer

Several groups e.g., mild moderate, severe profound

question

Parametric Descriptive Between Subject Design

answer

Different groups that receive different values e.g., gender differences vs. age differences + disorder

question

What are two ways to equivocate the experimental and control groups?

answer

Randomization Matching

question

Randomization

answer

Assignment of the subjects to an experimental group and to a control group on a random bias.

question

Matching

answer

Match the members of the two groups on all extraneous variables that were considered relevant to the experiment. e.g., matching on inherent characteristics

question

Frequency Distribution Technique

answer

Groups are matched in their overall frequency distribution rather than comparing participants case-by-case.

question

Precision Control Technique

answer

Match pairs of participants for assignment to our experimental and control group on a case-by-case basis.

question

Within Subject Group Design

answer

The performance of the same subject is compared in different conditions where we would have multiple tests on the same group.

question

Sequencing Effect

answer

Occurs when participants participate in a number of treatment conditions and their participation in an earlier condition may affect their performance in subsequent conditions.

question

How do we control for the sequencing effect?

answer

Randomization: present conditions in a random sequence Counterbalancing: arrange all possible sequences of treatment, then randomly assign the subjects to each sequence.

question

How are single subject designs and within subjects designs similar?

answer

We are testing participants into all conditions of the experiment that represent all levels of the IV

question

How do single subject designs differ from within subjects designs?

answer

Single subj design focuses on the analysis of the performance of the individual participant in each condition rather than the group on average.

question

Time Series Design

answer

(AB) Have one baseline and one treatment

question

Reversal Treatment Design

answer

(ABA) Have baseline, treatment, stop treatment, then see what happens at new baseline after treatment.

question

"ABAB" Treatment Design

answer

Baseline, treatment, stop treatment, treatment again Purpose is to see if the effects after the first treatment will change after the second.

question

Validity

answer

The extent to which the test measures what it set out to measure.

question

Internal Validity

answer

Want to see if the researcher has controlled or accounted for all the factors that could have a significant effect on the data collected. If the study has good internal validity, then the IV has caused the change in the DV

question

Name some threats to internal validity.

answer

Reactive Pretest Instrumentation Statistical Regression Differential Selection of Subjects Subject Attricion History Effect Maturation Interaction of Factors

question

Reactive Pretest

answer

The effect that merely taking a test may have on scores achieved on subsequent administrations of the test (may be better at taking subsequent test after taking the pretest)

question

Instrumentation

answer

Changes in the calibration on a measured instrument

question

Statistical Regression

answer

Phenomenon in which the participants who are selected based on typically low or high scores may change on a subsequent test to perform better or poorer than thought originally.

question

Differential Selection of Subjects

answer

Selection of subjects to form experimental and control groups *Prevent this by using randomization and matching.

question

Subject Attrition

answer

Refers to the loss of participants

question

History Effect

answer

Events occurring between the first and second or more measurements may alter our outcomes; can not control these events (e.g., home environment)

question

Maturation

answer

Refers to change in participants themselves over time (e.g., aging, spontaneous recovery)

question

Interaction of Factors

answer

Interaction of two or more threats to internal validity.

question

External Validity

answer

Extent to which we can generalize the results of our study to real-world populations

question

Name some threats to external validity

answer

Subject Selection Interactive Pretest Reactive Arrangements Multiple Treatment

question

Interactive Pretest

answer

Participants who were given a pretest may react differently than those who were not given the pretest

question

Name 3 types of validity

answer

Construct Validity Content Validity Criterion Referenced Validity (2 fold)

question

Effect Size

answer

A measure of the strength of a phenomenon.

question

Name 6 measures of effect size.

answer

Cohen's d Glass's Δ Hedges' G Cohen's ƒ2 Odds Ratio Relative Risk (or Risk Ratio)

question

Cohen's d

answer

The means of two or more groups are compared. A low cohen's d would indicate necessity for a larger sample (and visa versa).

question

Glass's Δ

answer

Proposed estimator of effect size that only uses standard deviation of the second group. Uses second group like a control group

question

Hedges' G

answer

Based on standardized difference. Follows a non-central distribution and degrees of freedom.

question

Cohen's ƒ2

answer

Uses an F test for an ANOVA Estimates for the sample rather than the population

question

Odds Ratio

answer

Based on comparing the probabilities of dichotomous events or outcomes in different groups. Appropriate when both variables are binary in nature. e.g., comparing the odds of an event in one group with the odds of the same event in another group.

question

Relative Risk

answer

(or Risk Ratio) Looks at the probability of an event relative to some other IV. Comparing probability rather than odds.

question

Sensitivity

answer

Measures the amount of actual positives that are correctly identified as such.

question

Specificity

answer

Measures the amount of negatives that are correctly identified as such.

question

What is a type 1 error?

answer

Rejecting a true null hypothesis

question

What is a type II error?

answer

β: Accepting a false hypothesis

question

What is power?

answer

Rejecting a false hypothesis.

question

How can we increase power?

answer

Increase effect size Use a less strict alpha level Use a more accurate measuring device

question

Level of Significance

answer

Indicates degree of confidence that the researcher has, that the differences seen in the data would not have occurred due to chance alone. The probability of making a type I error.

question

Describe the two most common alpha (α) levels.

answer

p=.05 --> 95% confidence that there is no error and only a 5% chance that the results might have occurred due to chance alone. p=.01 --> 99% confidence that there is no error and only a 1% chance that the results might have occurred due to chance alone.

question

Confidence Interval (CI)

answer

A particular kind of interval estimate of the population parameter; used to indicate the reliability of an estimate.

question

Standard Error of Measurement (SEM)

answer

Average mean value of a distribution that represents the best estimate of the true value of what we are measuring.

question

Measurement

answer

The assignment of numerals to objects or event according to rules. The type of measurement is based on the kind of data collected.

question

Nominal

answer

Assignment of numbers or symbols to designate subclasses that represent unique characteristics; mutually exclusive categories. e.g., pass or fail (because you don't "kind of" fail), male or female

question

Ordinal

answer

Type of measurement for objects or events put into relative ranking by determination of a greater or lesser value. Mutually exclusive categories + rank order e.g., Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior

question

Interval

answer

Type of measurement that contains the assignment of numbers to identify ordered relations of some type of characteristic. Arbitrarily assigned, no absolute zero e.g., Farenheit/Celcius; standardized scales on CELF 4

question

Ratio

answer

Type of measurement: mutually exclusive categories, rank ordering, equivalence of units, constant distance between adjacent intervals, equivalence of ratios among the scales, true zero present e.g., Decibals; stuttering frequency

question

Name four factors that affect quality of measurement.

answer

Test environment Instrument calibration Instructions to participants Observer bias

question

Reliability

answer

The degree to which you can depend on your measurements

question

Precision

answer

A measure will remain stable if we repeat it

question

Accuracy

answer

The trustworthy-ness of data

question

Repeatability

answer

The consistency of measurement; would you obtain the same results if you repeated the experiment?

question

Name 3 categories of reliability

answer

Stability Equivalence Internal Consistency

question

Stability

answer

Test/Re-test method. Consistency or repeatability of measurements. Involves performing a complete repetition of exact measurements and correlating the results of the two measurements.

question

Equivalence

answer

Accomplished by correlating the scores of two different forms of a measure of the same attribute.

question

Internal Consistency

answer

(or Split-Half method). Two halves of a measure may be seen as constituting two alternate forms; each half is then correlated with the other to receive the reliability coefficient. e.g., Administer test to large group of students, then correlate test results of odd vs. even numbered students.

question

What are two types of errors that may influence reliability? Explain.

answer

Systematic Error: reoccurs consistently with every repeated measure (e.g., audiometer is out of calibration and consistently produces an output of 20dB each time) Unsystematic Error: occurs in an unpredictable way during repeated measures (e.g., accidentally set audiometer at 2000Hz)

question

What are the different notations for research designs created by Campbell and Stanley?

answer

X = administration of experimental treatmt. O= observation and measurement of DV R=random assignment to the group MR=participants are matched and randomly assigned

question

"XO" One-Shot Case Study

answer

Single group observed once after treatment No pretest

question

"01X02" One-Group Pretest/Posttest Design

answer

One group is assembled, pretested, given treatment, then post-tested.

question

"X01/02" Static Group Design

answer

A group has been exposed to treatment and is being compared to another group that has not been exposed to treatment. No prettests.

question

"01X02/0304" Non-equivalent Control Group Design

answer

First group is pretested, exposed to treatment, then post-tested; Second group is pretested and post-tested with no treatment.

question

"R01x02/R0304" Randomized Pretest/Post-test Control Group Design

answer

Both groups pre and post-tested Control group will not receive treatment High internal validity

question

Multivalent Mixed Design

answer

Different levels of the IV, or of the treatment Four groups, all randomized, pre and post-tested. Three groups given varying levels of treatment, last group not given treatment.

question

Solomon Randomized Four Group Design

answer

Four groups, all randomized, some pretested, some given treatment, some post-tested. *review in notes

question

AB Randomized Time Series Design

answer

Mixed Design (between subjects and within subjects) Both groups randomized, pretested several times, experimental group gets treatment, both groups post-tested several times.

question

ABA Design

answer

Group is randomized, pretested several times, given treatment, post-tested several times, remove treatment, observe effects.

question

Variability

answer

The degree to which the score are going to spread out from the center of the distribution

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