Pysch Exam 2 – Flashcards
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language
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a system for communicating with other using signals that convey meaning and are combined according to rules of grammar
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phoneme
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the smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech rather than as random noise
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phonological rules
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a set rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds
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morphemes
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the smallest meaningful units of language
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grammar
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a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
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morphological rules
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a set of rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words
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syntactical rules
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a set of rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences
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deep structure
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the meaning of a sentence
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surface structure
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how sentence is worded
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fast mapping
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the fact that children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure
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telegraphic speech
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speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words
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nativist theory
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the view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity
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language acquisition device
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a collection of processes that facilitate language learning
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genetic dysphasia
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a syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence
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aphasia
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difficulty in producing or comprehending language
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linguistic relativity hypothesis
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the proposal that language shapes that nature of thought
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concept
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a mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events or other stimuli
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category-specific deficit
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a neurological syndrome that is characterized by an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category while leaving the ability to recognize objects outside the category undisturbed
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family resemblance theory
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members of a category have features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member
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prototype
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the "best" or "most typical member" of a category
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exemplar theory
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a theory of categorization that argues that we make category judgment by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category
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rational choice theory
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the classical view that we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two
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availability bias
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items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently
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heuristic
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a fast and efficient strategy that may facilitate decision making but does not guarantee that a solution will be reached
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algorithm
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a well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem
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conjunction fallacy
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when people think that two events are more likely to occur together that either individual events
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representativeness heuristic
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a mental shortcut that involves making a probability judgment by comparing an object or event to a prototype of object or event
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framing effects
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when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed)
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sunk-cost fallacy
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a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously
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prospect theory
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proposes that people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains
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frequency format hypothesis
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the proposal that our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur
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means-ends analysis
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a process of searching for the means or steps to reduce differences between the current situation and the desired goal
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analogical problem solving
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solving a problem by finding a similar problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem
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functional fixedness
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the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed
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reasoning
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a mental activity that consists of organizing information or beliefs into a series of steps to reach conclusions
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practical reasoning
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figuring out what to do, or reasoning directed toward action
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theoretical reasoning
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reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief
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belief bias
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people's judgment about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid
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syllogistic reasoning
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determining whether a conclusion follows from two statements that are assumed to be true
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consciousness
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the person's subjective experience of the world and the mind
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cartesian theater
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a mental screen or stage on which things appear to be presented for viewing by the mind's eye
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phenomenology
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how things seem to the conscious person
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problem of other minds
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the fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of others
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mind/body problem
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the issue of how the mind is related to the brain and body
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dichotic listening
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a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear
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cocktail party phenomenon
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a phenomenon in which people tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby
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minimal consciousness
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A low-level kind of sensory awareness and responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behavior
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full consciousness
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Consciousness in which you know and are able to report your mental state
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self-consciousness
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A distinct level of consciousness in which the person's attention is drawn to the self as an object.
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mental control
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the attempt to change conscious states of mind
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thought suppression
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the conscious avoidance of a thought
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rebound effect of thought suppression
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the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression
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ironic processes of mental control
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Mental processes that can produce ironic errors because monitoring for errors can itself produce them.
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dynamic unconscious
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an active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggle to control these forces
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repression
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a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness
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cognitive unconscious
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the mental processes that give rise to the person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behavior even though they are not experienced by the person
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subliminal perception
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a thought or behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving
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altered states of consciousness
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forms of experience that depart from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind
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circadian rhythm
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a naturally occurring 24-hour cycle
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rem sleep
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a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity
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electrooculograph
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an instrument that measures eye movement
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insomnia
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difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep
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sleep apnea
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a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep
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somnambulsim
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occurs when the person arises and walks around while asleep
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narcolepsy
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a disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities
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sleep paralysis
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the experience of waking up unable to move
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night terrors
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abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal
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manifest content
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a dream's apparent topic or superficial meaning
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latent content
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a dream's true underlying meaning
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activation-synthesis
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the theory that dreams are produced when the brain attempts to make sense of activations that occur randomly during sleep
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psychoactive drug
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a chemical that influences consciousness or behavior by altering the brain's chemical message system
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drug tolerance
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the tendency for larger doese of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect
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depressants
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a substance that reduce the activity of the central nervous system
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expectancy theory
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the idea that alcohol effects can be produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations
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balanced placebo design
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A study design in which behavior is observed following the presence or absence of an actual stimulus and also following the presence or absence of a placebo stimulus.
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alcohol myopia
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A condition that results when alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situations.
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stimulants
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substances that excite the central nervous system, heightening arousal and activity levels
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narcotice/opiates
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highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain
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endorphins/ endogenous opiates
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neurotransmitters that have a similar structure to opiates and that appear to play a role in how the brain copes internally with pain and stress
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hallucinogens
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drugs that alter sensation adn perception and often cause visual and auditory hallucinations
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marijuana
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the leaves and buds of the hemp plant
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hypnosis
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an altered state of consciousness characterized by suggestibility and the feeling that one's actions are occurring involuntarily
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posthypnotic amnesia
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The failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget.
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hypnotic analgesia
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the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are susceptible to hypnosis
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mediation
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the practice of intentional contemplation
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ratio IQ
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a statistic obtained by dividing a person's mental age by the person's physical age and then multiplying the quotient by 100
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deviation IQ
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a statistic obtained by dividing a person's test score by the average test scores of people in the same age group and then multiplying the quotient by 100
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factor analysis
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a statistical technique that explains a large number of correlations in terms of a small number of underlying factors
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two-factor theory of intelligence
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Spearman's theory suggesting that every task requires a combination of a general ability (which he called g) and skills that are specific to the task (which he called s)
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fluid intelligence
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The ability to process information
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crystallized intelligence
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the accuracy and amount of information available for processing
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prodigy
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a person of normal intelligence who has an extraordinary ability
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savant
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a person of low intelligence who has an extraordinary ability
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intelligence
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a hypothetical mental ability that enables people to direct their thinking, adapt to their circumstances and learn from their experiences
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heritability coefficient
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A statistic, commonly denoted as h^2, that describes the proportion of the difference between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genetic makeup.
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shared environment
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those environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a household
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nonshared environment
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Those environmental factors that are not experienced by all relevant members of a household
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emotion
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a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity
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james-lange theory
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states that emotional experiences are based on an awareness of the body's responses to emotion-arousing stimuli: a stimulus triggers the body's responses that in turn trigger the experienced emotion
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cannon-bard theory
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The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion
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two-factor theory
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Schachter-Singer's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
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appraisal
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an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus that is performed by the amygdala
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emotion regulation
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the use of cognitive and behavioral strategies to influence one's emotional experience
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reappraisal
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a strategy that involves changing one's emotional experience by changing the meaning of the emotion-eliciting stimulus
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emotional expression
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any observable sign of an emotional state
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affective forecasting
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The process by which people predict their emotional reactions to future events.
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universality hypothesis
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The hypothesis that emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone
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display rules
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norms for the control of emotional expressions
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hedonic principle
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the notion that all people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain
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homeostasis
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the tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular state
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drive
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an internal state generated by departures from physiological optimality
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bulimia nervosa
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an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
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anorexia nervosa
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an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severs restriction of food intake
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metabolism
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the rate at which energy is used by the body
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human sexual response cycle
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the stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity
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extrinsic motivation
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a motivation to take actions that are not themselves rewarding but that lead to reward
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intrinsic motivation
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a motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding
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conscious motivation
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a motivation of which one is aware
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unconscious motivation
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a motivation of which one is not aware
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need for achievement
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the motivation to solve worthwhile problems
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approach motivation
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a motivation to experience positive outcomes
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avoidance motivation
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A motivation not to experience negative outcomes.
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aggression
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behavior whose purpose is to harm another
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frustration-aggression principle
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a principle stating that people aggress when their goals are thwarted
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cooperation
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behavior by two or more individuals that lead to mutual benefit
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altruism
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behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself
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kin selection
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the process by which evolution selects for genes that cause individuals to provide benefits to their relatives
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reciprocal altruism
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behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
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group
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a collection of two or more people who believe they have something in common
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prejudice
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a positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their group membership
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discrimination
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positive or negative behavior towards another person based on their group membership
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in-group
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a human category of which a person is a member
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out-group
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a human category of which a person is not a member
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deindividuation
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a phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values
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social loafing
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The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
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bystander intervention
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The act of helping strangers in an emergency situation
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diffusion of responsibility
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the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
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group polarization
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tendency of group discussion to strengthen the dominant positions held by individual group members
