PY 101 Chapter 6: Memory – Flashcards

the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. Each of the three parts of this definition—encoding, storage, and retrieval—represents a different process. You can think of these processes as being analogous to a computer's keyboard (encoding), hard drive (storage), and software that accesses the information for display on the screen (retrieval). Only if all three processes have operated will you experience success and be able to recall the body of water on which Mumbai is located: the Arabian Sea.

dominated memory research for several decades, there are different memory storage systems or stages through which information must travel if it is to be remembered (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, 1971). Historically, the approach has been extremely influential in the development of our understanding of memory, and—although new theories have augmented it—it still provides a useful framework for understanding how information is recalled.

refers to the initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant. Here an exact replica of the stimulus recorded by a person's sensory system is stored very briefly.

second stage holds information for 15 to 25 seconds and stores it according to its meaning rather than as mere sensory stimulation Roughly seven (plus or minus two) chunks of information can be transferred and held in short-term memory. Information in short-term memory is held from 15 to 25 seconds and, if not transferred to long-term memory, is lost.

The third type of storage system is long-term memory. Information is stored in long-term memory on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.

A momentary flash of lightning, the sound of a twig snapping, and the sting of a pin-prick all represent stimulation of exceedingly brief duration, but they may nonetheless provide important information that can require a response. Such stimuli are initially—and fleetingly—stored in sensory memory, the first repository of the information the world presents to us. In sum, sensory memory operates as a kind of snapshot that stores information—which may be of a visual, auditory, or other sensory nature—for a brief moment in time. But it is as if each snapshot, immediately after being taken, is destroyed and replaced with a new one. Unless the information in the snapshot is transferred to some other type of memory, it is lost.

sensory stores auditory information coming from the ears lasts 2-3 seconds

sensory reflects information from the visual system lasts less than a second

Because the information that is stored briefly in sensory memory consists of representations of raw sensory stimuli, it is not meaningful to us. If we are to make sense of it and possibly retain it, the information must be transferred to the next stage of memory: short-term memory. Short-term memory is the memory store in which information first has meaning, although the maximum length of retention there is relatively short Unclear process

a grouping of information that can be stored in short-term memory. For example, a chunk can be a group of seven individual letters or numbers, permitting us to hold a seven-digit phone number (such as 226-4610) in short-term memory.

the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory. Rehearsal accomplishes two things. First, as long as the information is repeated, it is maintained in short-term memory. More important, however, rehearsal allows us to transfer the information into long-term memory

is the memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information. If you use the analogy of a computer, working memory is the processing that occurs in an open window on your desktop, as compared with the long-term storage of information in the computer's hard drive contains a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning and decision making. The central executive coordinates three distinct storage-and-rehearsal systems: the visual store, the verbal store, and the episodic buffer. The visual store specializes in visual and spatial information, whereas the verbal store holds and manipulates material relating to speech, words, and numbers. The episodic buffer contains information that represents episodes or events

material that makes its way from short-term memory to long-term memory enters a storehouse of almost unlimited capacity. Like a new file we save on a hard drive, the information in long-term memory is filed and coded so that we can retrieve it when we need it. he distinction between short- and long-term memory is also supported by the serial position effect, in which the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears. For instance, often a primacy effect occurs, in which items presented early in a list are remembered better. There is also a recency effect, in which items presented late in a list are remembered best

memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and facts, such as "a bike has two wheels." information about things is stored in declarative memory semantic and episodic

(or nondeclarative memory) refers to memory for skills and habits, such as how to ride a bike or hit a baseball information about how to do things is stored in procedural memory

is memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts. Because of semantic memory, we remember that the ZIP code for Beverly Hills is 90210, that Mumbai is on the Arabian Sea, and that memoree is the incorrect spelling of memory. Thus, semantic memory is somewhat like a mental almanac of facts

memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context. For example, recall of learning to hit a baseball, our first kiss, or arranging a surprise 21st birthday party for our brother is based on episodic memories. Episodic memories relate to particular contexts. For example, remembering when and how we learned that 2 × 2 = 4 would be an episodic memory; the fact itself (that 2 × 2 = 4) is a semantic memory.

mental representations of clusters of interconnected information Semantic networks in memory consist of relationships between pieces of information, such as those relating to the concept of a fire engine. The lines suggest the connections that indicate how the information is organized within memory. The closer together two concepts are, the greater the strength of the association. long term memory

The distinction between short- and long-term memory is also supported by the serial position effect, in which the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears. The distinction between short- and long-term memory is also supported by the serial position effect, in which the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears. For instance, often a primacy effect occurs, in which items presented early in a list are remembered better. There is also a recency effect, in which items presented late in a list are remembered best

The hippocampus and amygdala are especially important in the establishment of memory. Memories are distributed across the brain, relating to the different sensory information-processing systems involved during the initial exposure to a stimulus.

emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed. It suggests that the amount of information processing that occurs when material is initially encountered is central in determining how much of the information is ultimately remembered. According to this approach, the depth of information processing during exposure to material—meaning the degree to which it is analyzed and considered—is critical; the greater the intensity of its initial processing, the more likely we are to remember it

information is processed merely in terms of its physical and sensory aspects. For example, we may pay attention only to the shapes that make up the letters in the word dog

the shapes are translated into meaningful units—in this case, letters of the alphabet. Those letters are considered in the context of words, and specific phonetic sounds may be attached to the letters.

information is analyzed in terms of its meaning. We may see it in a wider context and draw associations between the meaning of the information and broader networks of knowledge. For instance, we may think of dogs not merely as animals with four legs and a tail, but also in terms of their relationship to cats and other mammals. We may form an image of our own dog, thereby relating the concept to our own lives. According to the levels-of-processing approach, the deeper the initial level of processing of specific information, the longer the information will be retained.

refers to intentional or conscious recollection of information. When we try to remember a name or date we have encountered or learned about previously, we are searching our explicit memory.

refers to memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior. Skills that operate automatically and without thinking, such as jumping out of the path of an automobile coming toward us as we walk down the side of a road, are stored in implicit memory. Similarly, a feeling of vague dislike for an acquaintance, without knowing why we have that feeling, may be a reflection of implicit memories. Perhaps the person reminds us of someone else in our past that we didn't like, even though we are not aware of the memory of that other individual

closely related to the prejudice and discrimination people exhibit toward members of minority groups. Although people may say and even believe they harbor no prejudice, assessment of their implicit memories may reveal that they have negative associations about members of minority groups. Such associations can influence people's behavior without their being aware of their underlying beliefs

associated with implicit memory occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information. Priming allows us to remember new information better and faster because of material we already have stored in memory. Priming effects occur even when people have no conscious memory of the original word or concept

You may recall your location and a variety of other details that occurred when you heard about the terrorist attacks on the United States, even though the incident happened more than a dozen years ago. Are memories related to a specific, important, or surprising event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery.

being or witnessing a car accident met a roommate for the first time night of something special early romantic experience public speaking admissions letter first airplane flight opening scores on tests

Flashbulb memories do not contain every detail of an original scene. I remember vividly that more than five decades ago I was sitting in Mr. Sharp's 10th-grade geometry class when I heard that President John Kennedy had been shot. However, although I recall where I was sitting and how my classmates reacted to the news, I do not recollect what I was wearing or what I had for lunch that day. often inaccurate when involving emotional events

information stored in memory disrupts the recall of other information stored in memory. For example, if I'm trying to recall my college classmate Jake's name and all I can remember is the name of another classmate, James, interference may be at work

information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material. Suppose, as a student of foreign languages, you first learned French in the 10th grade, and then in the 11th grade you took Spanish. When in the 12th grade you take a college subject achievement test in Spanish, you may find you have difficulty recalling the Spanish translation of a word because all you can think of is its French equivalent.

occurs when material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier. If, for example, you have difficulty on a French subject achievement test because of your more recent exposure to Spanish, retroactive interference is the culprit. Similarly, retroactive interference can account for the lack of accuracy of eyewitness memories, as newer information about a crime obtained from newspaper accounts may disrupt the initial memory of the observation of the crime.

a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities. Alzheimer's is the fourth leading cause of death among adults in the United States, affecting an estimated 5 million people.

memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. The type of amnesia immortalized in countless Hollywood films involves a victim who receives a blow to the head and is unable to remember anything from his or her past. In reality, amnesia of this type, known as retrograde amnesia, is quite rare

memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events. Usually, lost memories gradually reappear, although full restoration may take as long as several years. In certain cases, some memories are lost forever. But even in cases of severe memory loss, the loss is generally selective. For example, although people suffering from retrograde amnesia may be unable to recall friends and family members, they still may be able to play complicated card games or knit a sweater quite well

loss of memory occurs for events that follow an injury. Information cannot be transferred from short-term to long-term memory, resulting in the inability to remember anything other than what was in long-term storage before the accident

Change blindness occurs when the person cannot differentiate what is in front of them currently from what was there previous to the disturbance. This was also demonstrated in the second video and became very obvious when the change of people was so distinct. There have been many times I did not notice a change because I wasn't paying attention. I recently ran a red light because I was changing the music station in my car. Although there was no one around this is extremely dangerous and caused me to pay more attention while driving.

If you are studying a foreign language, try the keyword technique of pairing a foreign word with a common English word that has a similar sound. This English word is known as the keyword. For example, to learn the Spanish word for duck (pato, pronounced pot-o), you might choose the keyword pot; for the Spanish word for horse (caballo, pronounced cob-eye-yo), the keyword might be eye. Once you have thought of a keyword, imagine the Spanish word "interacting" with the English keyword. You might envision a duck taking a bath in a pot to remember the word pato or a horse with a large, bulging eye in the center of its head to recall caballo

Recall material you read in textbooks by organizing the material in memory the first time you read it. Organize your reading on the basis of any advance information you have about the content and about its arrangement. You will then be able to make connections and see relationships among the various facts and process the material at a deeper level, which in turn will later aid recall.

"Less is more" is perhaps the best advice for taking lecture notes that facilitate recall. Rather than trying to jot down every detail of a lecture, it is better to listen and think about the material, and take down the main points. In effective note taking, thinking about the material when you first hear it is more important than writing it down. This is one reason that borrowing someone else's notes is a bad idea; you will have no framework in memory that you can use to understand them

Although practice does not necessarily make perfect, it helps. By studying and rehearsing material past initial mastery—a process called overlearning—people are able to show better long-term recall than they show if they stop practicing after their initial learning of the material.

If you have trouble remembering names of people who you have recently met, one way to help yourself is to say their names out loud when you are first introduced. It will make it easier to retrieve the information later because the information is stored in additional ways in your brain.

Advertisements for One-a-Day vitamins with ginkgo biloba or Quanterra Mental Sharpness Product would have you believe that taking a drug or supplement can improve your memory. Not so, according to the results of numerous studies. No research has shown that commercial memory enhancers are effective