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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (Pavlov) biologically adaptive because it helps humans/animals to prepare for the good/bad.

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learning

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference

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Pavlov's work also laid the foundation for the ideas of a psychologist named?

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John B Watson

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Watson

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(1913) urged his colleagues science should be an objective science based on observable behavior

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UR

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naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus ex: salivation when food is in dogs mouth

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US

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a stimulus that naturally triggers a response ex: dog food

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CR

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the learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus (CS) ex: salivating to tone

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CS

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an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned (US) comes to trigger a response ex: tone

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aquisition

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the time you learn the condition response

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higher-order conditioning (second order conditioning)

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weaker

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extinction

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diminishing of a conditioned response ex: dog not salivating to tone

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response

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generaliztion

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar response (can be adaptive)

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discrimination

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In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (confronted by a pit bull your heart will race, confronted by a golden retriever, it probably will not.

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Watson & Pavlov

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underestimated mentalistic concepts and the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints on an organism's learned capacity

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Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner

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animals can learn the predictability of a event. The more predictable the stronger the conditioned response.

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John Garcia

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Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

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taste aversion

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a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

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Romantic Red

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men found women more attractive when framed in red

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Little Albert

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Children played with white rat; bell sounded to frighten them; children feared furry objects because they were associated with the frightening bell; Watson

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respondent behavior

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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (Classical conditioning)

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operant conditioning

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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Skinner)

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operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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Law of Effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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Skinner

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developed a behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control

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operant chamber

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A chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

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learning

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A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

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shaping

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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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successive approximations

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small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior

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reinforcer

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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by presenting a positive stimuli such as food. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response strengthens the response.

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negative reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli such as a shock. Any stimulus that when removed after a response, strengthens the response. *Note: not a punishment

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reinforcement

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any consequence that strengthens behavior.

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primary reinforcer

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. ex: getting food when hungry, having a painful headache go away

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conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; secondary reinforcer ex: money, good grades

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continuous reinforcer

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. ex:

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partial reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part on the time; results in slower acquisition of a response, but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

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An event that decreases the behavior that it follows

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cognitive map

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A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but its not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

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observational learning

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Learning by observing others

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modeling

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

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frontal lobe neurons that fire when preforming certain actions or when observing others doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. Underlie our intensely social nature.

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learning from observation

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14 month year old boy, in Andrew Meltzoff's lab imitates behavior he has seen on TV. The infant leans forward and carefully watches the adult pull apart the toy. Thus, he pulls the toy apart.

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theory of mind

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mirror neurons help give rise to children's empathy and to their ability to infer another's mental state

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Bobo doll

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nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively. (Bandura)

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prosocial behavior

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Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

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antisocial effects

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Effects from observational learning that lead to antisocial behaviors such as violence, premarital sex, and stereotyping.ex: abusive parents...might have aggressive children

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correlation

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does not imply causation

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violence viewing effect

answer

stems from imitation and desensitization (exposure to violence can make children become indifferent to violence)

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memory

answer

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of info

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digits

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average remember: 7-9 digits, Shereshevskii: could repeat up to 70

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encoding

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the process of getting information into the memory system for example by extracting meaning

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storage

answer

retaining encoded info over time

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retrieval

answer

the process of getting information out of the memory stage

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connectionism

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views memories as emerging from interconnected neural networks. Specific memories arise from particular activation patterns within these networks

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Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin three stage processing model of memory

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1. we first record to-be-remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory 2. from there, we process info into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Finally, info moves into long term memory for later retrieval (limited and fallible) **some info skips first two stages and is processed directly in our long term memory, without our conscious awareness

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sensory memory

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system

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short-term memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the info is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experience.

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working memory (second stage)

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a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info, and of info retrieved from long term memory. ***associates new and old info and solves problems

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automatic processing

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unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned information, such as word meanings (where you ate dinner yesterday)

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space

answer

while studying, you often encode the place on the pagewhere certain material appears; later, when struggling to recall that information, you may visualize its location

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time

answer

While going about your day, you unintentionally note the sequence of the days events. Later you realize you've left your coat somewhere, you can recreate the sequence and retrace your steps.

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frequency

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you effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen, thus enabling you to realize "this is the third time I've run into her today.

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well-learned information

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when you see words in your native language, perhaps on the side of an delivery truck, you cannot help but register their meanings. At such times, automatic processing is so effortless that it is difficult to shut it off.

question

effortful processing

answer

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (this modules's concepts)

question

Ebbinghaus

answer

formed a list of all possible nonsense syllables by sandwiching one vowel between two consonants. He then randomly selected a sample of the syllables, practiced them, and test him self. To get a feel for his experiments, rapidly repeat aloud, 8 times over, the following list: JIH,BAZ, FUB... day after Ebb could only recall few of the syllables. **the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning. ***For novel verbal info, practice effortful processing-make perf

question

spacing effect

answer

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

question

rehearsal

answer

the conscious repetition of info either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

question

Massed practice

answer

cramming, can produce speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence

question

distributed study

answer

produces better recall

question

Harry Bahrick

answer

practiced foreign language word translations for a given # of times, 14-56 days. The longer the space between their practice sessions, the better the retention up to 5 years later

question

testing effect

answer

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

question

serial position effect

answer

Immediate recall: last items best (recency effect) Later recall: only first items remembered (primacy effect)

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visual encoding

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encoding picture images

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acoustic encoding

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encoding of sound, sound of words

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semantic encoding

answer

encoding of meaning, meaning of words deeply

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self reference effect

answer

the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself

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imagery

answer

mental pictures, a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially combined with semantic encoding

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mnemonics

answer

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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chunking

answer

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

question

rosy retrospection

answer

The tendency to rate past events more positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred.

question

hierarchies

answer

helps us retrieve info efficiently

question

Sperling

answer

out of the nine letters, people could only recall half

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iconic memory

answer

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths on a second

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echoic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

question

unless our working memory meaningfully encodes or rehearses that info, it quickly disappears from?

answer

short term memory

question

without active processing

answer

short term memories have a limited life

question

short term memory

answer

limited not only in duration but capacity, typically storing about seven bits of info

question

without rehearsal

answer

most of us actually retain in our short term memory about 4 chunks on info

question

long term memory's capacity

answer

endless..

question

memory trace

answer

Physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed.

question

Aplysia

answer

the sea snail was used to study how memories can change in the strength of specific synaptic connections by enhancing the availability and release of neurotransmitters at these synapses- Eric Kandel ***when learning occurs more serotonin is released

question

LTP

answer

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

question

mutant mice

answer

engineered to lack an enzyme needed for LTP cant learn their way out of maze

question

mild cognitive impairment

answer

Forgetfulness and loss of verbal fluency that often comes before the first stage of Alzheimer disease..increase protein CREB enhanced memories

question

glutamate

answer

enhance synaptic communication

question

cerebellum

answer

brain region extended out of rear of the brain stem; forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning

question

infantile amnesia

answer

implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy, yet adults cant explicitly recall our 1st three years

question

long term memory explicit

answer

declarative= hippocampus- facts, knowledge, academic, personal events, conscious

question

long term memory implicit

answer

nondeclarative= cerebellum- skills motor and cognitive, classical conditioning, independent of consciousness

question

flashbulb memory

answer

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (first kiss)

question

amnesia

answer

loss of memory

question

hippocampus

answer

located in limbic system, helps process explicit memories for storage

question

recall

answer

a measure of memory, nothing in front of you ex: fill in the blank

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recognition

answer

a measure of memory, identify items previously learned ex: multiple choice test

question

relearning

answer

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time

question

Bahrick

answer

could recall many classmates, could only recognize 90% of their pictures and names

question

retrieval cues

answer

Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.

question

priming

answer

Activating particular associations in memory

question

deja vu

answer

That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

question

mood-congruent memory

answer

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

question

three sins of forgetting

answer

1. absent-mindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we lay down the car key) 2. Transience: storage decay over time ( after we part ways with former classmates unused information fades) 3. Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information (seeing an actor in an old movie, we feel the name on the tip of our tongue but experience retrieval failure- we cannot get it out.

question

Three sins of distortion

answer

Misattribution: confusing the source of information (putting words in someone else's mouth or remembering a dream as an actual happening) Suggestibility: the lingering effects of misinformation: ( a leading question-Did Mr. Jones touch your private parts?" -later becomes a young child's false memory) Bias: belief-colored recollection (current feeling toward a friend may color our recalled initial feelings)

question

one sin of intrusion

answer

persistence: unwanted memories (being haunted by images of a sexual assault) -Nationals

question

retention drops with relearning

answer

then levels off

question

proactive interference

answer

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

question

retroactive interference

answer

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

question

explanation

answer

gradual fading of the physical memory trace

question

positive transfer

answer

spanish class helps learning Latin

question

misinformation effect

answer

incorporating misleading info into one's memory

question

memory contruction

answer

car smashed vs crashed

question

source amnesia (Piaget)

answer

attributing the wrong sources an event we have experienced, read about, heard about, or imagined, -false memories

question

episodic memory

answer

story

question

procedural

answer

tie shoes, walk

question

HM

answer

the inability to acquire new memories

question

what we remember after 3 year

answer

we keep

Psychology Modules 23-30 – Flashcards

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