Psychology Chapter 2 summary: The Biological Perspective
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Nervous System
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An extensive network of specialized cells that carry important information to and from all parts of the body
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Neurons
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The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system
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Dendrites
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Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons
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Soma
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The cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of a cell
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Axon
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Tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells (power cord)
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Myelin
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Fatty substances that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse
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Nerves
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Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body
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Ions
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Charged particles
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Resting Potential
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The state of the neuron when not firing neural impulses
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Action potential
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The release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon. (allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell)
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All-or-None
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Referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or doesn't fire at all
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Synaptic Knob
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Rounded areas on the end of axon terminals
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Axon Terminals
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Branches at the end of the axon
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Synoptic Vesicle
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Sack-like structures found inside synaptic knobs containing chemicals
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Synapse/ Synaptic Gap
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Microscopic fluid filled space between the rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals of one of the cell and dendrites or surface the next cell
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Receptor Sites
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Holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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Part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
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Spinal cord
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A long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and from the body to the brain that is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes
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Sensory Neuron
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A neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system
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Motor Neuron
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A neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body
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Interneuron
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A neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the sensory neuron and sends commands to the muscles through the motor neurons. They make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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All the nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but run through the body itself
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What are the two systems of the Peripheral Nervous System?
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Somatic Nervous System & Autonomic Nervous System
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Somatic Nervous System
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The division of the Peripheral Nervous System consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the Central Nervous System and then from that system to the voluntary muscles of the body
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Body
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What does "soma" mean?
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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The division of the Peripheral Nervous System consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands
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Sympathetic Division
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Part of the Autonomic Nervous System that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal. (Fight-or-Flight)
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Parasympathetic Division
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Part of the Autonomic Nervous System that restores the body back to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands
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Endocrine Glands
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System of ductless glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream
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Horomones
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Chemicals released into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands
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Pituitary Gland
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The gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands, also known as the "master gland"
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Pineal Gland
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The endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum that secretes melatonin
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Thyroid Gland
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An endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism
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Pancreas
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An endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood
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Adrenal Glands
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An endocrine gland located on the top of the kidney that secretes over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source for sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence
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Gonad
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Sex gland that secretes hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction (ovaries and testicles)
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Immune System
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A system of cells, organs, and chemicals in the body that responds to attacks of the body from disease and injuries
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Thymus Gland
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A gland located near the top of the sternum that produces hormones to help fight off infections and disease
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Deep Lesioning
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Insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which an electrical current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire
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Computed Tomography (CT)
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Brain-imaging method using computer controlled X-rays of the brain
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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Brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI)
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Computer makes a sort of movie of changes in the activity of the brain from different time periods
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
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Brain-imaging method in which radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and the computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain, with lighter colors indicating more activity
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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Machine designed to record the brain wave patterns produced by electrical brain activity of the surface of the brain
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Neuroplasticity
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The ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and functions of the cell in response to experience or trauma
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Stem Cells
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Special cells found in all of the tissues of the body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear
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Medulla
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The first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate
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Pons
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The larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleeping, dreaming, left and right body coordination, and arousal
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Reticular Formation
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An area of the neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that plays a role in general arousal, alertness, and sleep
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Cerebellum
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The part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, and fine motor movement
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Limbic system
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A group of several brain structure located under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation
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Thalamus
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Part of the Limbic System located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area
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Hypothalamus
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A small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst and sex.
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Homeostasis
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The tendency of the body to maintain a steady state
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Hippocampus
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A curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects
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Amygdala
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A brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear
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Cortex
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The outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input
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Cerebral Hemispheres
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The two sections of the cortex on the left and right side of the brain
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Corpus Callosum
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A thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres
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Occipital Lobe
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A section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain
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Primary Visual Cortex
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Processes visual information from the eyes
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Visual Association Cortex
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Identifies and makes sense of visual information
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Parietal Lobes
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Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations
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Somatosensory Cortex
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The area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes, responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch temperature body position and possibly taste
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Temporal Lobes
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Areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech
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Primary Auditory Cortex
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Processes auditory information from the ears
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Auditory Association Cortex
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Identifies and makes sense of auditory information
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Frontal Lobes
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Areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech
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Motor Cortex
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The section of the frontal lobe located at the back, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the Somatic Nervous System
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Association Areas
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Areas within each lobe of the cortex, responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing
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Broca's Area
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Condition resulting from damage to _____________ (usually in the left frontal lobe), causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly
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Wernicke's Area
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Condition resulting from damage to ______________ (usually in the left temporal lobe), causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language
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Nature
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The influence of our DNA that dictates the inherited characteristics that influence our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
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Nurture
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The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interaction
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DNA
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Special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism
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Gene
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Section of the DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements
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Chromosome
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Tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
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Dominant Gene
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Referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait
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Recessive Gene
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Referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene
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Predisposition
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Genetic tendency or possibility
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Charles Darwin
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19th century British scientist
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Theory of Evolution
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Principle stating that species of plants and animals change gradually over the course of many generations
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Evolution
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Process of gradual change over time
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Natural Selection
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Principle stating that inherited characteristics that give a natural survival advantage are more likely to be passed on to future generations
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immune system
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The endocrine system is linked to what other system?
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hypothalamus
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What sits above and controls the pituitary gland and is often called the "master endocrine gland"?
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corpus callosum
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Split brain research is studying patients with severed what?
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It involves sending messages to only one side of the brain and demonstrates right and left brain specialization
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What does split brain research involve and what does it demonstrate?
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Just a fact from our notes
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Most psychologists believe that both nature and nurture play important roles in human development
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DNA
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What determines the outlines of our lives?
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- Parents - Peers - Cultural Expectations
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What external forces have a huge amount of power over who we become?
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Just a fact from our notes
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Many psychologists believe that human behavior is shaped by biology, environment, and evolutionary forces.
