question

learning

answer

1. permanent change in behavior due to experience 2. the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values through experience, research, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is measurable

question

learning involves changing our behavior in response to what?

answer

experience

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classical conditioning

answer

how we respond to the world

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operant conditioning

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how we act in the environment

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observational learning

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how we observe the environment

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behaviorists

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are psychologists who insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, and not concern itself with mental processes or events. They seek the simplest explanations for behaviors.

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Methodological behaviorism

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Observing our behavior to see why we act this way

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What kind of behaviorism did John B Watson support?

answer

John B. Watson believed Methodological behaviorists study only events that they can measure and observe, that only observable behaviors are worthy of research.

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example of methodological behaviorism

answer

If a monkey bares its teeth and makes loud noises after the following events, the behaviorist infers fear (we can measure, observe this)

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Radical behaviorists

answer

Environment & Genetics mold behavior

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What kind of behaviorism did BF Skinner support?

answer

BF Skinner believed, as a Radical behaviorist, that the environment and genetics plays a powerful role in molding behavior. Skinner followed much of Watson's research and findings, but believed that internal states could influence behavior just as external stimuli.

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What do radical behaviorists believe

answer

Radical behaviorists believe that internal states are caused by external events or genetics

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key fact about strict (or radical) behaviorists

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they avoid making inferences about internal states. The ultimate cause of behavior is observable events.

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structuralists used what to study psuchology

answer

introspection

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what is introspection?

answer

Subjects described their own experiences in order to study thoughts and ideas.

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what did behaviorists insist?

answer

Behaviorists insisted that psychology deal with observable and measurable events only.

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What did Jacques Loeb argue regarding the rise of behaviorism?

answer

Jacques Loeb argued that all animal and most human behavior could be explained with stimulus-response psychology.

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what is stimulus- response psychology

answer

This explains behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response (or how we respond to a stimulus).

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example of stimulus-response behaviors

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flinching from a blow, or shading one's eye from strong light

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determinism

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an assumption that all behavior has a cause and effect

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what does determinism suggest

answer

If enough is known about an individual's experiences, influences, and genetics, we can predict behavior.

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Ivan Pavlov

answer

was a physiologist who won a Nobel Prize for his research on digestion.

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Founder of Classical Conditioning

answer

Ivan Pavlov

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Pavlov's experiment (slide 10)

answer

Pavlov saw that dogs used in his research salivated when they saw the lab workers who fed them. He suspected that the reflex was "psychological" - based on the dog's previous experiences. Further testing showed that showing food to the dog produced the same effect as feeding it.

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what type of conditioning does Pavlov's experiment prove

answer

classical conditioning -

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example of classical conditioning

answer

a dog's ability to associate the sound of a bell (something that originally has no meaning to the dog) with the presentation of food (something that has a lot of meaning to the dog) a few moments later -- dogs are able to learn the association between bell and food, and will salivate immediately after hearing the bell once this connection has been made

question

significance of Pavlov's experiment

answer

1. for the first time, scientists could research human learning by the associations between two stimulus 2. the research helped us understand and use the power of positive association 3. it paved the way for us to understand the role that negative associations can play in our phobias and irrational fears

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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- a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur). - It is when animals react to stimulus without training

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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an unlearned reaction/response to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning. - It is an action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically brings out. You react

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. --stimulus that we react to only after we learned about it (Pavlov's experiment used conditioned stimulus)

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning --you learned how to react to the stimulus

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examples of unconditioned stimulus (US)

answer

food, meat for dinner bee sting fire balloon pop air puff to the eye

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Unconditioned response (UR)

answer

the dogs salivating crying run from fire startle response blinking your eye

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The eye-blink experiment

answer

--a rabbit is conditioned to blink its eye. A musical tone is repeatedly followed by a puff of air blown in its eye. After a few repetitions, the rabbit blinks when the tone sounds (acquisition) ---The tone is repeatedly played without the air puff. Gradually, the rabbit stops blinking. (Extinction)

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Acquisition

answer

The process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response is called acquisition. This means that when an organism learns something new, it has been "acquired".

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extinction

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To extinguish a classically conditioned response, the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. This is a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency. ---Extinction is the elimination of a learned behavior by discontinuing the reinforcer of that behavior.

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SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

answer

sometimes there will be a reappearance of a response that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the CS. It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere.

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spontaneous recovery

answer

The temporary return of an extinguished response

question

To deal with your conditioned response to the song from a fast food commercial, What steps would you take to produce spontaneous recovery?

answer

To produce spontaneous recovery, watch the commercial once a few days after the extinction procedure has been completed.

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To deal with your conditioned response to the song from a fast food commercial, what steps would you take to produce extinction?

answer

To produce extinction, play the song repeatedly with no image of the cheeseburger.

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stimulus generalization

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- a response to a specific stimulus becomes associated to other stimuli (similar stimuli) and now occurs to those other similar stimuli.

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example of stimulus generalization

answer

a child who gets bitten by black lab, later becomes afraid of all dogs. The original fear evoked by the Black Lab has now generalized to ALL dogs

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stimulus discrimination

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learning to respond to one stimulus and not another. Thus, an organisms becomes conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli.

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example of stimulus discrimination

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a puppy may initially respond to lots of different people, but over time it learns to respond to only one or a few people's commands. Discrimination is the process of learning to respond differently to two stimuli because they produce two different outcomes.

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Thorndike's contribution

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---In 1911 Edward Thorndike developed a simple, behaviorist explanation of learning. ---He used a learning curve, a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of an experiment, to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a maze. ---his

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Thorndike's experiment

answer

---his research included cats, dogs, chickens. To see how they learn new behaviors, he used a small chamber called a Puzzle Box. ----He would place an animal in the puzzle box, and if it performed the correct response (such as pulling a rope, pressing a lever, or stepping on a platform), the door would swing open and the animal would be rewarded with some food located just outside the cage. Soon it would take the animal just a few seconds to earn its reward. Each of Thorndike's puzzle boxes had a device that could open it. --

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results of Thorndike's experiment

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---He noted that cats would learn more quickly if the response selected produced an immediate escape. ---he observed that the escape from the box acted as a reinforcement for the behavior that led to the escape. ---The cats tried many different behaviors and learn to select one that produced escape. ----Cats learned more quickly if the selected response produced an immediate escape.

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reinforcement

answer

an event that increases the future probability of the most recent response.

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main idea of Thorndike's experiment

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behavior + consequences = Learning

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the type of learning that Thorndike studied

answer

operant or intrumental conditioning

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operant or instrumental conditioning

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involves changing behavior by following a response with reinforcement

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The Law of Effect

answer

---founded by Thorndike ---states that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. ---Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future.

question

example of law of effect

answer

basketball foul shoot - do whats more comfortable

question

B.F. Skinner

answer

considered to be the most influential of all radical behaviorists ---Beginning in the 1930s, Skinner spent several decades studying the behavior of animals—usually rats or pigeons—in chambers that became known as Skinner boxes. ---believed much of behavior could be studied in a single, controlled environment such as the Skinner Box.

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benefits of experiments conducted in a controlled environment

answer

prevents any factors not under study from interferring with the study

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operant conditioning

answer

---involves increasing a behavior by following it with a reward, or decreasing a behavior by following it with punishment ---refers to the fact that the learner must operate or perform a certain behavior, before receiving an award or punishment ---encourages us to behave in ways that exert influence or control over our environment ---can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced. It is weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced)

question

example of operant conditioning

answer

When a rat learns that by pressing a lever gets more food, it has been operant conditioned to push the lever. When a child screams and gets her way, she has been conditioned the same way.

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skinner box or operant chanber

answer

---developed by skinner to study operant conditioning ---The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or keythat an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar orkey is connected to devices that record the anumal's response

question

shaping

answer

using reward or reinforcement to produce progressive changes in behavior in a desired direction. This is a behavioral term that refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response. ---teach behaviors that are they have never performed before

question

Famous baby box experiment

answer

---Deborah skinner Skinner used an "operant chamber" (referred to as a "Skinner box" by others) into which he put the animal he wished to train by shaping. Gradually the animal was reinforced for behaviors that approached the target activity until it fully performed the behavior.

question

Skinner's famous pigeon experiment

answer

---To make a pigeon turn in a complete clockwise circle, Skinner would first reinforce the pigeon with food for just turning a few degrees to the right. ---When the pigeon began turning to the right regularly, he would cease reinforcing until the pigeon turned a few more degrees in that direction. ----When that behavior was established, he would wait until the pigeon turned further to the right, and reinforce that movement, until finally the pigeon turned in a complete circle.

question

reinforcement

answer

----an event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated ----either the presentation of a desirable item such as money or food, or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, such as verbal nagging or physical pain ----

question

punishment

answer

an event that decreases the probability of a response

question

true/ false: Most people respond better to both delayed reinforcement and permanent punishment.

answer

False: Most people respond better to both immediate reinforcement and immediate punishment.

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Positive reinforcement

answer

The presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of an event.

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passive avoidance

answer

negative reinforcement - in response to punishment, the organism avoids the outcome by being passive

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example of passive avoidance

answer

---A child learns to avoid being sent to his room for the evening by not teasing his little sister. ---A woman avoids distress by not calling her sister who always says cruel things whenever they talk.

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example of positive reinforcement

answer

---whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior ----a father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer

question

examples of negative reinforcement

answer

---parents stop nagging after child clean his room. nagging = neg reinforcer ----putting ointment on bug bite. itch = neg reinforcer

question

What type of learning has occurred? You really want to pass this class so you never have to sit through it again.

answer

Passive Avoidance learning (or negative reinforcement)

question

What type of learning has occurred? You send flowers to your sweetheart because you always get extra affection and compliments after you do so.

answer

positive reinforcement

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Chaining behavior

answer

---operant conditioning method in which sequential behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next one ---consists of breaking a task down into small steps and then teaching each specific step, one step at a time

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example of chaining behavior

answer

eating. we first learn to eat with utensils and gradually acquire the preceding activities of buying the food and preparing the food.

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forward chaining

answer

breaks a task down into undertsandable and manageable steps . Each steps in the sequence is taught from the beginning to the end. The teacher begins to teach the student the first step in the chain. When the first step is learned, the teacher moves to the second step

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reinforcer

answer

something that increases the likelihood of the preceding responsoe

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examples if reinforcers

answer

saccharin, a sweet chemical; tobacco; alcohol

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stimulus

answer

any stimulating information or event; acts to arouse action ---A stimulus, such as a reward, the removal of an unpleasant event, or a punishment, that in operant conditioning maintains or strengthens a desired response.

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primary reinforcers

answer

unconditioned reinforcers like food and water. ---unconditioned reinforcers meet primary, biological needs and are found to be reinforcing for almost everyone. ---

question

examples of primary reinfrocers

answer

food, drink. and pleasure

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secondary reinforcers

answer

--conditioned reinforcers like money, because it can be exchanged for food and water which are necessary reinforcers. ---Its paying for the primary reinforcers

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example of secondary reinforcers

answer

you learn that good grades will win your parents' approval. Secondary reinforcers means "learned." We spent most of our time working for secondary reinforcers.

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why are conditioned reinforcers effective

answer

because they have become associated with unconditioned reinforcers.

question

four categories of operant conditioning

answer

behavior leads to the event 1. positive reinforcement 2. punishment = passive avoidance learning behavior avoids the event 3. negative punishment = omission training 4. negative reinforcement = escape or avoidance learning

question

conditioned taste aversion

answer

where you learn to avoid foods, especially unfamiliar foods, if you become ill afterwards.

question

Albert Bandura

answer

founder of observational learning ---defined the social-learning response --bobo doll experiment

question

social-learning response

answer

states that we learn many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time --much learning results from observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own ---we are more likely to imitate behaviors that have been rewarding for other people, and we are less likely to imitate behaviors that create unpleasant results for others.

question

chief components of social learning

answer

modeling and imitation

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observational learning

answer

use to describe how an animal learns by watching others. Observational learning occurs with no outside reinforcement -- the animal simply learns by observing.

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The famous BOBO Doll experiment

answer

Bandura and his assistants did experiments in which children watched films of real people and cartoon characters either attacked an inflated "Bobo" doll or did not.

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bobo doll experiment results

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----Children who saw the versions of the films with aggressive behavior were more likely to repeat those actions when left alone with a similar toy. ---The implication was that the children were imitating the aggressive behavior they had just witnessed in the film.

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memory

answer

a general term for the storage, retention, and recall of events, information, and procedures ---process by which we store, save, and recall information

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true / false: the brain loses memory

answer

false: your brain never loses anything. Once a perception or thought is placed into your memory, it stays there forever.

question

what is "forgetting"?

answer

what we call forgetting is either the inability to recall stored info, or the failure to store info. Once info is stored in memory, it is never forgotten. Forgetting tends to begin in seconds unless rehearsal is permitted

question

Hermann Ebbinghaus

answer

studied his own ability to memorize new material ---initiated the scientific study of memory. He invented over 2300 nonsense syllables and put them into random lists. ---memorized nonsense syllables

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Von Restorff effect

answer

The tendency of people to remember unusual items better than more common items ---Distinctive or unusual information is easier to retain ---meaningful material = easier to memorize

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Recall (or free recall)

answer

the simplest method for the tester but the most difficult for the person being tested. Information must be produced with little to no hint provided (essay and short-answer items.).

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Retrieval Cues

answer

Reminders or hints that help us to retrieve information from long-term memory ----are bits of associated information that help you to regain complex memories.

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Cued recall

answer

gives significant hints about the correct answer. A fill-in-the-blank test uses this method.

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Recognition

answer

requires the person being tested to identify the correct item from a list of choices. ---Multiple-choice tests use the recognition method.

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savings (relearning) method

answer

method compares the speed that new material is learned to the speed of relearning of old material. (detects weak memory)

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The difference between recall and cued recall

answer

Free recall is remembering the author of the book without the hints of the Author's initials. Cued recall includes seeing the hint of the author's initials.

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Explicit memory

answer

- is your ability to retain info that you've put real effort into learning, like recalling describing a basic principle of classical conditioning to your classmate

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Implicit or indirect memory

answer

- an experience influences what you say or do even though you might not be aware of the influence

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Declarative memory

answer

the ability to state a fact, info, names, dates, faces. Fact memory. It stores why, how, when, where, what, who

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procedural memory

answer

memory of how to do something. Skills memory. It;s conditioned responses like writing, riding a bike, typing. It' performing actions

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semantic

answer

memory of principles and facts. It stores meaning of words

question

example of semantic memory

answer

things learned in school 0

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episodic

answer

memory for specific events in your life --Autobiography of thoughts, things that happened to us, retention of info about what happened to you, what you did on your birthday.

question

memory of a recent piano lesson is what type of memory?

answer

declarative and episodic

question

memory of how to read music

answer

semantic

question

memory of how to play the piano

answer

procedural

question

The bonus question on your Introductory Psychology test asks you to name the stages of the human sleep cycle. What type of memory test is this?

answer

recall

question

You are on a game show and the question that you must answer is "_________ is the city that is home to the Eiffel Tower, the Louvre, and the Cathedral of Notre Dame." What type of memory test is this?

answer

cued recall

question

You answer more questions on the subject of molecular biology correctly on the comprehensive semester final than you did on the chapter test two months earlier. What concept describes this?

answer

relearning or savings

question

While at a hardware store, you are looking at several shades of light green paint trying to pick the one that matches the color on the walls of your home. What type of memory test is this?

answer

recognition

question

The information-processing model of memory

answer

you input information into the system, you file and save it, and you can retrieve the info. ---includes sensory, short term, long term memories

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The sensory memory

answer

the sensory store is considered to be the first stage of memory processing. It is a combination of memory ; perception. ----lasts less than a second.

question

short term memory or working memory

answer

temporary storage of recent events ----It's limited capacity memory of info retained for 30 seconds.

question

example of short term memory

answer

---If a friend asks you what was just said in class, and you were paying attention, you could repeat it. This is because you are being asked to recall something from short-term memory. ---If you were not paying attention, you would not recall it.

question

long term memory

answer

a relatively permanent storage of mostly meaningful information.

question

example of the difference between short and long term memory

answer

playing a video game: current score = short term memory rules of the game= long term memory

question

Decay of short and long-term memory

answer

---Information that has been stored in long-term memory may be vulnerable to the effects of interference. ---Forgetting begins in seconds unless rehearsal is permitted.

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Capacity of short and long term-memory

answer

Most normal adults can immediately repeat a list of about seven bits or pieces of information, with expected variations in range from five to nine items.

question

chunking

answer

grouping or packing info into units, making more manageable to remember ---helps overcome the limits of short term memory

question

3 mental operations required for memory

answer

encoding=transfer of info into your memory. storage = holding info for later use. Filing it away retrieval = recovering info from storage. Finding it

question

list and serial order effects

answer

we remember the beginnings and ends of lists better than the middles

question

primary effect

answer

the tendency to remember the beginning of the list

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recency effect

answer

the tendency to remember the items at the end of the list

question

SPAR method

answer

best strategy for anyone who needs to learn a lot of material is to space out the study material ---Study the material ---Wait for awhile ---Return to the material and test yourself on it (review, process, ask questions)

question

mnemonic devices

answer

---A mnemonic device is any memory aid that is based on encoding each item in a special way. ---Short, verbal strategies that improve, expand our ability to remember new info. Use mental pictures, form unusual mental associations. ---strategies or tricks for improving memory

question

method of loci

answer

---one of the oldest mnemonic devices ---first memorize a series of places, then use a vivid image to associate each image with something you want to remember

question

example of loci method

answer

---First, learn a list of places, such as my desk, the door of my room, the corridor, . . ." Then link each of these places to an item on a list of words or names, such as a list of the names of Nobel Peace Prize winners.

question

reconstruction

answer

during an experience, you construct a memory. When you try to retrieve that memory, you reconstruct an account based partly on surviving memories and partly on your expectations of what must have happened. ---fill in the gaps of missing memory with what normally occurs

question

memory for routine events will fade unless ____?

answer

something unusual happenes

question

example of reconstruction

answer

If you met a new love interest while at dinner with friends, this event will be memorable and easily reconstructed.

question

understandable reasons for forgetting

answer

1. interference 2. decay 3. loss of retrieval cues 4. source amnesia

question

interference

answer

---If an individual learns several sets of related materials, the retention of the old material makes it harder to retain new material, and the learning of the new materials makes it harder to retain the old. ---memories block each other

question

decay

answer

the memory is subject to the combined effects of time and interference

question

proactive interference

answer

retaining old material makes it hard to recall new material.

question

retroactive interference

answer

learning new material makes it hard to recall old material.

question

You answer the telephone at your new receptionist job with the name of the your former employer's firm. What kind of interference caused this embarrassing slip-up?

answer

Proactive interference

question

Hindsight bias

answer

the tendency to mold our recollection of the past to how events later turned out. ---saying "I knew that was going to happen!" after the event has occurred.

question

memory for traumatic events

answer

---Sigmund Freud believed that it was possible to repress a painful memory, motivation or emotion, to move it from the conscious to the unconscious mind. ---Research indicates that it is possible to forget a traumatic event, but whether this happens depends on a number of factors - age at the time of the event, reaction of family, and type of event.

question

Flashbulb memory

answer

Long lasting deep memories in response to traumatic events. --ex: 9/11

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false memory

answer

a report that an individual believes to be a memory but actually never occurred. Memories may or may not be reliable. ---We use adaptive strategies for "filling in the gaps" - reason and logic.

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repressed memory

answer

is memory of a traumatic event that is made unavailable for recall.

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amnesia

answer

a severe loss or deterioration of memory. We can learn a lot about the different forms of memory by studying these cases. Amnesia is a memory disorder that is caused by brain damage or a traumatic event.

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Anterograde amnesia

answer

a disorder that results in the loss of memory after an injury. Unable to store any new memories ---difficulty storing new memories ---induced by brain damage

question

Retrograde amnesia

answer

a disorder that results in the loss of memory prior to an injury. Could not remember many events that occurred between 1 and 3 years before his surgery. ---loss of old memories ---induced by brain damage

question

Korsakoff's Syndrome

answer

---A degenerative memory disorder caused by chronic alcoholism and vitamin deficiency. ---Symptoms: amnesia, confabulation, lack of insight and apathy. ---Treatment: vitamin B injections, proper nutrition, and hydration

question

Amnesia After Brain Damage

answer

: The frontal lobe damage occurs as a result of stroke, head trauma, or Korsakoff's syndrome, a dementia brought on by deficiency of vitamin B1 related to chronic alcoholism, leads to loss and shrinkage of neurons all over the brain.

question

Confabulation

answer

wild guessing mixed in with correct information in an effort to hide memory gaps. Patients have pre-frontal cortex damage in brain. Confab fills in gaps or reconstruct in their memory (kind of like a false memory)

question

Dementia

answer

Condition of a slow decline in memory, problem solving ability, learning ability and judgment.

question

Alzheimer's Disease

answer

---marked by a gradual build-up of harmful proteins and deteriorating brain cells. ---most common cause of dementia ---symptoms: include repeating questions, forgetting how to do simple tasks, forgetting who you are and where you are.

question

who discovered Alzheimer's disease?

answer

Dr. Alois Alzheimer in 1906. He detected tangles and plaques in the brain of a woman.

question

cognition

answer

thinking, acquiring, and managing knowledge

question

language

answer

---intimately related to the activities of cognition ---system of arbitrary symbols that can be combined to create an infinite number of meaningful statements

question

cognitive psychologists

answer

study how people think and acquire knowledge, know what they know, and how they solve problems and imaginie

question

attention

answer

the tendency to respond selectively to stimuli ---unusual objects will get your attention quicker than similar objects.

question

preattentive process

answer

finding an unusual feature or figure relies on a preattentive process, a procedure for extracting information automatically

question

attentional blink

answer

During a brief time after perceiving one stimulus, it is difficult to attend to something else.

question

Stroop Test

answer

a psychological test of our mental vitality and flexibility

question

directed attention

answer

you have to manage your attention, inhibit or stop one response in order to say or do something else.

question

the famous "Stroop Effect"

answer

---named after J. Ridley Stroop ---discovered that it is difficult to name colors in which words are written, instead of reading the words themselves. (the word red in blue color)

question

change blindness

answer

---related to sensory memory ---People believe they remember everything in a scene they have recently scanned, but they frequently fail to detect changes in parts of a scene upon viewing it again

question

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

answer

---ADD= easy distraction, impulsiveness, moodiness and inability to follow through on plans. ---when symptoms include noticeable fidgetiness, the condition is referred to as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ---3 to 10% of people ---70% boys

question

categorization

answer

The formation of categories or concepts is one of the primary ways that we organize information about our world.

question

prototypes

answer

---ways of describing a category ---a familiar or typical example of a category ---We decide whether or not an object belongs in a category by determining how well it resembles the prototypical members of the category

question

example of prototype

answer

We use ROSE as the prototypical flower. Daisy and tulip resemble it closely enough that you would quickly agree that they belong in the same category. 7

question

development of concepts

answer

A prototype is a familiar example of a typical category member. We decide if an object belongs in a category by assessing how well it resembles the prototypical members of the category ex: robin = prototype of bird, penguin does not even though they are both birds

question

conceptual networks and priming

answer

---Thinking about something usually means relating it to a network of related concepts. ---We have a hierarchy in mind of categories and subcategories

question

process of categorizing

answer

---The upper levels of the hierarchy are the more common, broadly shared characteristics. ---The lower levels are the more distinctive or special characteristics.

question

spreading activation

answer

When you hear about one concept, the other concepts that you associate with it are also primed or activated

question

examples of spreading activation

answer

1. if you hear the word "car" you think of "drive" or "road" 2. According to one explanation, the word Armstrong and the ideas astronaut, first person on the moon, and famous sayings all activate the linked saying "One small step for a man . . ."

question

4 phases of problem solving

answer

1. Understanding and simplifying the problem 2. Generating hypotheses 3. Testing the hypotheses 4. Checking the result

question

Algorithms

answer

An algorithm is a mechanical, repetitive, step-by-step procedure for arriving at the solution to a problem. ---used for well defined problems ---mathematics is made up primarily of algorithmic problem solving

question

problem with algorithms

answer

---very time consuming- exhausts all possibilities ---If we were to unscramble letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

question

heuristics

answer

---used for ill defined problems ---strategies for simplifying a problem or guiding an investigation. ---It's problem-solving by trial and error. A method of solving problems for which no formula exists. It is based on informal methods or experience.

question

pros/ cons of heuristics

answer

---pro: Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems --con: used inappropriately - ascribes things to groups because they are similar even thought hey may not belong to that group ---Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.

question

availability heuristic

answer

- we use remembered examples of an event to assess how common the event is.

question

when does availability heuristics lead us astray?

answer

when one category gets more publicity than another or is more memorable

question

example of availability heuristics

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it is easier to think of examples of people dying from car crashes than from stomach cancer, so you assume that you are more likely to die in a car crash.

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Maximize (problem solving)

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considering every possibility to identify the best choice (uses algorithms. )

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satisfying

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To stop at a good-enough choice. (uses heuristics.)

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problem-solving procedure

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a logical step-by-step procedure for solving a mathematical problem in a finite number of steps, often involving repetition of the same basic operation

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insight

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---involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. ---humans and animals have insight ---used in cases where we have NO idea whether or not we would be able to solve the problem ---seems to be arrived at suddenly

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critical thinking

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the careful evaluation of evidence for and against any conclusion

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metacognition

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refers to thinking about thinking

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example of metacognition

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When you think about your thoughts. When you reflect on why you are so nervous before an exam, you are using your conscious awareness to examine your own thought processes.

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representativeness heuristic

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- if an item resembles members of a particular category we assume it belongs there. (If it looks like a duck....) --Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype.

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when does representativeness heuristic lead us astray?

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when something resembles members of a rare category

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example of representativeness heuristic

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something looks like a UFO, so you decide it is one

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base-rate-information

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data on the frequency or probability of an event.

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intuition

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not using systematic reasoning

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overconfidence

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we believe our answers are more accurate than they actually are

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we tend to be overconfident about answers to _______ questions and underconfident about answers to ________ questions.

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difficult; easy

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what increases our overconfidence?

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---Intuitive heuristics ---confirmation of beliefs ---inclination to explain failures

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Premature commitment to a hypothesis

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---committing to an explanation or hypothesis before we have all the available information on the problem --- can lead us to fail to consider other plausible possibilities and fail to arrive at the correct answer.

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Functional Fixedness

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---special case of premature commitment ---tendency to adhere to a single approach to a problem or a single way to use an item. It is narrow adherence to a problem-solving strategy single use for a tool leads to failure or incorrect conclusions.

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Fixation:

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---An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. ---An example of fixation is functional fixedness

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framing effect

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The tendency to answer a question differently when it is phrased differently

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example of framing effect

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What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean? (one sounds worse even though they mean the same)

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the belief perseverance phenomenon

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is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

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sunk cost effect

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is our tendency to do something that we'd otherwise choose not to do, just because we spent the money to do it.

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only human language can be called ______?

answer

productive

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animal language

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comprised of prepackaged messages

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human languages

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communicate a deep structure, the intended meaning of the words

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transformational grammar.

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---coined by Linguist Noam Chomsky ---quality that almost any human language provides enough vocabulary and grammatical variation that the deep structures can be converted into many differently arranged statements that still represent the same idea

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Broca's Aphasia

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difficulties in language production

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Wernicke's Aphasia

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difficulty in recalling names of objects and impaired comprehension of language

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Paul Broca

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French neurosurgeon who examined the brain of a recently deceased patient who had had an unusual disorder. It affected his ability to speak, he could neither speak a complete sentence nor express his thoughts in writing.

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Broca's area

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vital for using and understanding grammatical devices - prepositions, conjunctions, prefixes, suffixes, etc.. ---a critical part in putting our thoughts into words

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Wernicke's area

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important for naming objects and comprehending language. ---associated with the processing of words that we hear being spoken, or language inputs. ---important in language development

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aphasias

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---a term for various inabilities to process or use language ---damage to Broca's area and Wernicke's area cause this

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______ production and processing activates very widespread areas of the brain.

answer

Language

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language development for 1 year olds

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babbling that resemble the typical sounds of the family's language; probably one or more words including "mama"; language comprehension much better than production

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language development - 3 month olds

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cooing - random vocalizations

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language development - 6 months

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distinct babbling

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language development - 1 1/2 years

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says some words, a few phrases

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What influences reading?

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The motion of our eyes across a page or surface, as we scan words and parts of words

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phonemes

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units of sound - single letters or combination of letter

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morphemes

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units of meaning - usually syllables or words

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how many phonemes and morphemes are in the word "shamelessness?"

answer

---nine phonemes ---three morphemes

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how many phonemes and morphemes are in the word "doggedly?"

answer

--- seven phonemes ---three morphemes

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what makes eye movements of reading jerky?

answer

Human eyes move steadily when we are following a moving object, but our eyes alternate between brief stationary periods and periods of quick movement when we are reading

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fixations

answer

the periods when your eyes are stationary

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saccades

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the quick eye movements that take your gaze from one fixation point to another. You are virtually blind during the saccades

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speedreaders

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---have briefer fixations and backtrack less frequently than do average adult readers ---people can double or triple their reading skills with practice ---Speed readers who know that they are going to be tested on the details of what they have read are observed to slow down substantially. ---some claims about speed readers remain untestable

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