Psychology 101 Chapter 2 – Flashcards
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Empiricism
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The belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation of objects or events.
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Scientific Method
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A set of principles about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence.
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Theory
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A hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon.
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Hypothesis
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A falsifiable prediction made by a theory.
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Empirical method
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A set of rule and techniques for observation.
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Dogmatists
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The tendency for people to cling to their assumptions.
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Complexity
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500 million interconnected neurons that constitute the brain give rise to the thoughts, feelings, and actions that are psychology's core.
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Variability
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No two individuals ever do, say, think, or feel exactly the same thing under exactly the same circumstances.
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Reactivity
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People often think, feel and act one way when they are being observed and a different way then they are not.
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Three things that make people especially difficult to study:
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Complexity, variability, reactivity.
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Operational definition
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A description of a property in concrete, measurable terms.
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Measure
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A device that can detect the condition which an operational definition refers.
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Electromyograph (EMG)
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A device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person's skin.
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Validity
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The extent to which a measurement and a property are conceptually related.
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Reliability
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The tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing.
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Power
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The ability of a measure to detect the concrete conditions specified in the operational definition.
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Demand Characteristics
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Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should.
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Naturalistic Observation
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A technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments.
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Double-Blind
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An observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed.
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Variable
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A property whose value can vary across individuals or over time.
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Correlation
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Two variables are said to "be correlated" when variation in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other.
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Natural Correlation
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A correlation observed in the world around us.
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Third- Variable Correlation
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The fact that two variables are correlated only because each is casually related to a third variable.
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Third-Variable Problem
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The fact that a casual relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of third-variable correlation.
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Experiment
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A technique for establishing the casual relationship between variables.
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Manipulation
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The creation of an artificial pattern of variation in a variable in order to determine its causal powers.
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Independent Variable
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The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
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Experimental Group
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The group of people who are treated in a particular way, as compared to the control group in an experiment.
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Control Group
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The group who are not treated in the particular way that the experiment group is treated in an experiment.
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Dependent Variable
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The variable that is measured in a study.
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Self-Selection
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A problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he or she will be included in the experimental or control group.
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Random Assignment
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A procedure that uses a random event to assign people to the experimental or control group.
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Internal Validity
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The characteristic of an experiment that establishes the casual relationship between variables.
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External Validity
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A property of an experiment in which the variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical or realistic way.
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Population
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The complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured.
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Sample
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The partial collection of people drawn from a population.
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Case Method
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A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual.
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Random Sampling
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A technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
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Informed Consent
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A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.
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Debriefing
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A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study.
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Freedom from Coecion
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It is unethical to offer people large amounts of money to persuade them to do something that they might otherwise decline to do.
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Protection from Harm
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Protect their research participants from any physical or psychological harm.
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Risk Benefit Analysis
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Small risks might be taken, however scientists must demonstrate that these risks outweigh the social benefits of the new knowledge that might be gained from the study.
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Deception
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Only when it is justified by the study's scientific, educational, or applied value and when alternative procedures are not feasible.
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The belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation is: a. parsimony b. dogmatism c. empiricism d. scientific research
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c. empiricism
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Which of the following is the best definition of a hypothesis? a. empirical evidence b. a scientific investigation c. a falsifiable prediction d. a theoretical idea
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c. a falsifiable prediction
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The methods of psychological investigation take ________ into account because when people know they are being studied, they don't always behave as they otherwise would. a. reactivity b. complexity c. variability d. sophistication
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a. reactivity
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When a measure produces the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing, it is said to have a. validity b. reliability c. power d. concreteness
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b. reliability
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Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should are called: a. observer biases b. reactive conditions c. natural habitats d. demand characteristics
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d. demand characteristics
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In a double-blind observation, a. the participants know what is being measured b. people are observed in their natural environments c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed d. only objective, statistical measures are recorded
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c. the purpose is hidden from both the observer and person being observed
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When two variables are correlated, what keeps us from concluding that one is the cause and the other is the effect? a. the possibility of third-variable correlation b. the random assignment of control groups c. the existence of false positive correlation d. the impossibility of accurately measuring correlation strength
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a. the possibility of a third-variable correlation
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A researcher administers a questionnaire concerning attitudes toward global warming to people of both genders and of all ages who live all across the country. The dependent variable in the study is the _____ of the participants. a. age b. gender c. attitudes toward global warming d. geographical location
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c. attitudes toward global warming
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The characteristic of an experiment that allows conclusions about casual relationships to be drawn is called a. external validity b. internal validity c. random assignment d. self-selection
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b. internal validity
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An experiment that operationally defines variables in a realistic way is said to be a. externally valid b. controlled c. operationally defined d. statistically significant
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a. externally valid
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A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail is known as a. a memorandum of understanding b. informed consent c. a signature of authorization d. debriefing
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b. informed consent
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Which of the following are true for participants in a psychology study? a. They do not have to be told about risks they may encounter by participating in the study if, by disclosing such risks, the experimenter feels that participants' behavior will be altered in such way that any scientific results will be invalid b. They may be paid for participation, as long as the amount of money is not so great that it might persuade them to do something they might not otherwise do c. They must be mentally capable of providing informed consent d. All of the above are true
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b. They may be paid for participation, as long as the amount of money is not so great that it might persuade them to do something they might not otherwise do
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What are psychologists ethically required to do when reporting research results? a. to report findings truthfully b. to share credit for research c. to made data available for further research d. all of the above
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d. all of the above
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_____ use a specific approach, known as a _____, to observe and to understand natural phenomena. a. dogmatists; measure b. empiricists; method c. dogmatists; method d. humanists; measure
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b. empiricists; method
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Dr. Jones says she has a theory about effects of caffeine on anxiety. What might she mean by this? a. she will perform an experiment to test her idea. b. she believes she knows how caffeine and anxiety are related. c. she has based her ideas on previous research. d. she might mean all of these things.
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d. she might mean all of these things.
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Which of the following is NOT a challenge to scientifically studying human behavior? a. variability b. reactivity c. reliability d. complexity
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c. reliability
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The health department is testing the effectiveness of a recent campaign promoting a healthy lifestyle. Of the following, which is the best operational definition of "healthy lifestyle"? a. self-report b. naturalistic observation c. number of fruits and vegetables consumed in a day d. how healthy they are
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c. number of fruits and vegetables consumed in a day
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One consequence of providing an inaccurate operational definition of the properties we intend to measure is that the measurement will be: a. invalid b. reliable c. valid d. powerful
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a. invalid
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You decide to use a person's eye color as a measure of intelligence. Which of the following statements is TRUE? a. the measure is reliable but lacks validity. b. the measure is valid but lacks reliability. c. the measure is reliable and valid d. the measure is neither reliable nor valid.
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a. the measure is reliable but lacks validity.
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Celeste wants to understand why her identical twin sisters are more alike than she and their older sister are. Celeste is interested in which goal of scientific research? a. identifying the causal relationships that explain differences between groups b.finding differences between groups c. diagnosing mental disorders d. aking hypotheses
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a. identifying the causal relationships that explain differences between groups
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As the age of a male professor increases, the amount of hair on his head decreases. This is a: a. causal relationship b. correlation c. case method d. predictive validity measure
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b. correlation
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For a study to be a true experiment, you must _____ one of the variables of interest and _____ the effect on a second variable. a. manipulate; measure b. manipulate; predict c. observe; predict d. sample; measure
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a. manipulate; measure
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Where did the principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice first appear, as applied to research? a. the Geneva Convention b. the Belmont Report c. the Nuremberg Code d. the APA Code of Conduct
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b. the Belmont Report
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Which of the following is one of the major ethical principles that psychologists must follow when conducting research? a. informed consent b. debriefing c. risk-benefit analysis d. a researcher must follow all of these principles.
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d. a researcher must follow all of these principles.
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In a groundbreaking study, Dr. DuBois reported that monkeys could acquire both English and French. When asked for the data by a colleague, Dr. DuBois did not share them. Should Dr. DuBois share the data? a. No, because researchers retain the rights to their data. b. No, because the other researcher might steal her data. c. Yes, because the colleague is her friend. d. Yes, because the APA code requires data sharing for re-analysis.
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d. Yes, because the APA code requires data sharing for re-analysis.
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The _____ is a set of principles used to describe the relationships between ideas and evidence. a. philosophy of science b. scientific method c. dogmatic way d. empirical approach
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b. scientific method
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A scientist theorizes that several billion years ago a large asteroid collided with the Earth, knocking tons of rock into space and creating the moon. Which of the following constitutes a research hypothesis that follows from this theory? a. the universe was created by a Big Bang. b. it is possible to someday inhabit the Moon. c. moon rock should be made of the same elements as Earth rock. d. the Moon will itself someday collide with the Earth
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c. moon rock should be made of the same elements as Earth rock.
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Which of the following is NOT a challenge to scientifically studying human behavior? a. variability b. reactivity c. reliability d. complexity
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c. reliability
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Measuring depression and measuring a minute: a. are different because measuring depression requires an operational definition, but measuring a minute does not. b. are different because measuring a minute requires an operational definition, but measuring depression does not. c. are different because a minute has an absolute duration, but depression has no absolute qualities. d. are similar because both require operational definitions.
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d. are similar because both require operational definitions.
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Which of the following is a good technique to avoid demand characteristics? a. a case method b. naturalistic observation c. a carefully controlled experiment in a laboratory setting d. a take-home survey that includes the participant's personal contact information
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b. naturalistic observation
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Dr. Roberts wants to see how children usually interact on the playground. She should probably use a(n): a. case method b. experiment c. operational definition d. naturalistic observation
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d. naturalistic observation
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As the age of a male professor increases, the amount of hair on his head decreases. This is a: a. causal relationship b. correlation c. case method d. predictive validity measure
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b. correlation
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At a particular high school, there is a negative correlation between popularity and academic success. Which of the following statements can be accurately inferred? a. students who do well in class tend to be popular. b. having lots of friends results in less time for study and causes students to do worse in school. c. students who do extremely well academically probably will be viewed as less popular. d. devoting a great deal of time to study causes students not to seek out personal relationships.
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c. students who do extremely well academically probably will be viewed as less popular.
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Dr. Spelke thinks language is highly involved with spatial ability. She enlists college students to do a verbal task while they navigate around a room, while another group of students does a nonverbal tapping task while also doing the same navigation task. What is the purpose of the tapping group? a. they serve as a control group. b. they are the experimental group. c. they directly test the research hypothesis. d. they serve no purpose and should be taken out of the study.
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a. they serve as a control group.
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Which of the following is TRUE about ethical research in psychology? a. no agency enforces the code of conduct; psychologists operate on the honor system. b. informed consent must always be obtained from research participants or their legal guardians. c. deception must never be used in psychological research. d. animal subjects must never be exposed to painful stimuli.
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b. informed consent must always be obtained from research participants or their legal guardians.
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The ethical principle of _____ means that research participants are given enough information about a study to make a reasonable decision about whether they will participate. a. freedom from coercion b. informed consent c. debriefing d. protection from harm
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b. informed consent
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If you sprain your ankle and your doctor asks you to develop a theory about how your ankle works, she is probably a(n): a. physiologist b. methodologist c. empiricist d. dogmatist
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c. empiricist
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Which word describes the process of using senses to learn about an event or object? a. observation b. sensation c. meditation d. perception
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a. observation
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When naturalistic observation is NOT an option, which of the following is the best technique to avoid demand characteristics? a. use a cover story so the participant is blind to the main objective of the experiment b. use a double-blind design c. counterbalance the levels of the study d. randomly assign participants to different groups
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b. use a double-blind design
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A boxer suddenly begins experiencing wild mood swings and bizarre behavior. A neuroscientist determines that the boxer has traumatic brain injury probably caused by numerous concussions. The neuroscientist then studies the brain functioning of the boxer in great detail using fMRI brain imaging techniques to learn more about concussions. This represents a(n): a. experiment b. naturalistic observation c. independent variable d. case study
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d. case study
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A college recently banned the use of plastic water bottles on campus in an effort to be more eco-friendly. A psychologist at the college is interested in the attitudes of the students toward this ban. She obtains a list of all of the students who are enrolled at the college. She randomly picks 100 students from this list and administers to these students a survey designed to assess their opinion on the plastic water bottle ban. The psychologist is using which method? a. random sampling b. random assignment c. experiment d. naturalistic observation
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a. random sampling
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In a study about viewing violence in movies and rates of violent crimes, what was found? a. there was no relation between these variables. b. the relation between these variables depended on the operational definitions used. c. on evenings when people watched violent movies, there were fewer violent crimes. d. when people watched violent movies, there were more violent crimes.
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c. on evenings when people watched violent movies, there were fewer violent crimes.
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Maximizing benefits and reducing research risks is associated with the principle of: a. justice b. respect for persons c. fidelity d. beneficence
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d. beneficence
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Which ethical principle prevents researchers from asking participants to take on large risks in a research study? a. deception b. freedom from coercion c. risk-benefit analysis d. All of these principles protect participants from large risks
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c. risk-benefit analysis
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Dr. Saunders wants to conduct a study with chickens as subjects. What must be true about this study? a. suffering must be minimized b. Dr. Saunders must be trained in working with chickens c. Dr. Saunders is responsible for the well-being of the chickens d. all of these must be true
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d. all of these must be true
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Which of the following best defines the word "theory"? a. a hypothetical explanation of natural phenomena b. an educated guess c. an unproven description of the world d. something that is true
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a. a hypothetical explanation of natural phenomena
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_____ is the idea that people are all different, making human behavior more difficult to study. a. variability b. reactivity c. reliability d. complexity
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a. variability
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A reliable measure is one that: a. is consistent b. measures what it was intended to measure c. predicts actual behavior d. co-varies with the independent variable
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a. is consistent
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If a measure is valid, it: a. produces a consistent result if the same thing is measured twice b. measures what it was intended to measure c. predicts actual behavior d. covaries with the independent variable
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b. measures what it was intended to measure
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A researcher may give a false explanation for the purpose of a study. Researchers do this in order to lessen the effects of: a. demand characteristics b. informed consent c. operational definitions d. matched samples.
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a. demand characteristics
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The number of different types of Olympic medals (gold, silver, bronze) that a country wins is an example of a: a. variable b. measure of central tendency c. method d. correlation
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a. variable
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In drug testing, some groups of people are given specific doses of the drug in order to examine the effects. The researchers are _____ the amount of drug given. a. randomizing b. manipulating c. randomizing and manipulating c. randomizing, manipulating and arbitrarily restricitng
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b. manipulating
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An experiment with internal validity must effectively: a. manipulate the independent variable. b. be controlled to determine a causal relationship between variables. c. use a reliable, valid, and powerful measure of the dependent variable. d. all the answers are correct.
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d. all the answers are correct.
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The Smith family has very little money and no health insurance. A researcher approaches them and promises free health care for their children for two years if he can subject the children to a series of experimental vaccines, which may have serious side effects. The Smith family does not want harm to come to their children but they feel compelled to participate because of the free health care. According to the APA code of ethics the researcher is violating which principle? a. informed consent b. freedom from coercion c. protection from harm d. debriefing
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b. freedom from coercion
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Which of the following statements is NOT falsifiable? a. the sky looks blue to most people b. the head of a pin can hold 2,000 angels c. dancing for three hours will make you tired d. dropping a rock from the top of a building will make it fall
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b. the head of a pin can hold 2,000 angels
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A second-grade teacher seeks help from a school psychologist because a child in the teacher's class is particularly unruly. The school psychologist visits the class one day to observe the child. Knowing that she is being watched, the child decides to be on her best behavior. This scenario best illustrates _____ as a reason for why human behavior is difficult to study. a. complexity b. reactivity c. reliability d. variability
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b. reactivity
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You are a 20-year-old college student and you step on your bathroom scale today and the scale indicates that you weigh 25 pounds. If you step on the same scale tomorrow and it indicates that you still weigh 25 pounds then your scale is _____ but probably not _____. a. accurate; valid b. reliable; valid c. valid; reliable d. valid; accurate
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b. reliable; valid
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John is participating in a study and is asked if he would stop and help someone whose car has broken down on the freeway. John answers yes even though he knows he would probably not stop and help. John's response reflects the power of: a. debriefing b. operational definition c. naturalistic observation d. demand characteristics
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d. demand characteristics
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Bart thinks his dog is losing his hair because Bart switched him to a new brand of food. Bart gradually reduces the amount of food from the new brand and increases the amount of the old brand until the dog is only eating the old brand of food. The type and amount of the dog's food is an example of: a. manipulation b. correlation c. causation d. matched pairs
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a. manipulation
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Dr. Horton made it clear to his introductory psychology students that if they didn't participate in his research, they would receive a failing grade in his class. What ethical principle has Dr. Horton violated? a. freedom from coercion b. informed consent c. debriefing d. protection from harm
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a. freedom from coercion
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The ethical principle of _____ means that participants must be told the true purpose and nature of an experiment after it is over. a. protection from harm b. freedom from coercion c. debriefing d. informed consent
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c. debriefing
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_____ involves relying on assumptions and beliefs about the world, whereas _____ involves making direct observations of the world. a. methodology; dogmatism b. dogmatism; empiricism c. empiricism; dogmatism d. empiricism; methodology
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b. dogmatism; empiricism
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Which of the following is a component of a good theory? a. it is elaborate b. it cannot be falsifiable c. it is falsifiable d. it is famous
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c. it is falsifiable
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A good _____ for aggression may be number of times one rat bites another rat. a. sample b. method c. operational definition d. naturalistic observation
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c. operational definition
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For a study to be an experiment, you must _____ one of the variables of interest and include at least _____ group(s) of participants. a. manipulate; two b. manipulate; one c. observe; two d. randomize; one
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a. manipulate; two
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In an experimental design, volunteers are placed into the experimental group or the control group based on a flip of a coin. This method illustrates: a. statistical significance b. random sampling c. random assignment d. matched samples
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c. random assignment
