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Allegory

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A story in which people (or things or actions) represent an idea or generalization about life. Usually have a strong lesson or moral.

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Alliteration

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The repetition of initial consonant sounds in words, such as "Peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."

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Allusion

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A reference to a familiar person, place, thing or event - for example, Don Juan, brave new world, Everyman, Machiavellian, utopia.

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Analogy

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A comparison of objects or ideas that appear to be different but are alike in some important way.

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Anapestic Meter

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Meter that is composed of feet that are short-short-long or unaccented-unaccented-accented, usually used in light or whimsical poetry, such as a limerick.

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Anecdote

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A brief story that illustrates or makes a point.

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Antagonist

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A person or thing working against the hero of a literary work.

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Aphorism

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A wise saying, usually short and written.

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Apostrophe

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A turn from the general audience to address a specific group or persons (or a personified abstraction) who is present or absent. For example, in a recent performance of Shakespeare's Hamlet, Hamlet turns to the audience and spoke directly to one woman about his father's death.

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Assonance

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A repetition of the same sound in words close to one another - for example, white stripes.

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Blank Verse

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Unrhymed verse, often occurring in iambic pentameter.

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Caesura

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A break in the rhythm of language, particularly a natural pause in a line of verse, marked in prosody by a double vertical line (//)

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Characterization

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A method an author uses to let readers know more about the characters and their personal traits.

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Cliche

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An expression that has been used so often that it loses its expressive power - for example, "dead as a doormat" or "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse."

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Consonance

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Repetition of the final consonant sound in words containing different vowels - for example, "stroke of luck."

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Couplet

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A stanza made up of two rhyming lines.

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Diction

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An author's choice of words based on their clearness, conciseness, effectiveness, and authenticity.

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Archaic Diction

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Old-fashioned words that are no longer used in common speech, such as thee, thy and thou.

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Colloquialisms

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Expressions that are usually accepted in informal situations or regions, such as "wicked awesome."

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Dialect

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A variety of language used by people from a particular geographic area.

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Jargon

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Specialized language used in a particular field or content area - for example, educational jargon includes differentiated instruction, cooperative learning and authentic assessment.

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Profanity

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Language that shows disrespect for others or something sacred.

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Slang

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Informal language used by a particular group of people among themselves.

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Vulgarity

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Language widely considered crude, disgusting, and oftentimes offensive.

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End Rhyme

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Rhyming the ends of lines of verse.

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Enjambment

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Also known as a run-on line in poetry, enjambment occurs when one line ends and continues onto the next line to complete meaning. For example, in Thoreau's poem "My life has been the poem I would have writ," the first line is "My life has been the poem I would have writ," and the second line completes the meaning - "but I could not both live and utter it."

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Existentialism

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A philosophy that values human freedom and personal responsibility. Jean-Paul Satre is the foremost existentialist. Other famous existentialist writes include Soren Kierkegaard ("the father of existentialism"), Albert Camus, Freidrich Nietzche, Franz Kafka, and Simone de Beauvoir.

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Flashback

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A literary device in which the author jumps back in time in the chronology of a narrative.

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Foot

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A metrical foot is defined as one stressed syllable and a number of unstressed syllables (from zero to as many as four). Stressed syllables are indicated by the ' symbol. Unstressed syllables are indicated by the symbol. There are four possible metrical feet:

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Iambic Foot

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(unstressed, stressed)

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Trochaic Foot

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(stressed, unstressed)

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Anapestic Foot

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(unstressed, unstressed, stressed)

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Dactylic Foot

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(stressed, unstressed, unstressed)

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Line lengths (poetry)

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One foot - monometer Two feet - Dimeter Three feet - Trimeter Four feet - Tetrameter Five feet - Pentameter Six feet - Hexameter Seven feet - Septameter Eight feet - Octometer

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Foreshadowing

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A literary technique in which the author gives hints or clues about what is to come at some point later in the story.

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Forced Rhyme

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is used in a poem when the writer of the verse puts a rhyme where it seems to be out of place. In their attempts to end their lines with perfect rhyme, some poets resort to using forced rhyme, employing nonexistent words in the guise of appearing unique or using poorly constructed sentences.

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Free Verse

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Verse that contains an irregular metrical pattern and line length; also known as vers libre.

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Genre

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A category of literature defined by its style, form, and content.

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Heroic Couplet

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A pair of lines of poetic verse written in iambic pentameter.

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Hubris

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The flaw that leads to the downfall of a tragic hero; this term comes from the Greek word hybris, which means "excessive pride."

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Hyperbole

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An exaggeration for emphasis or rhetorical effect.

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Imagery

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The use of words to create pictures in the reader's mind.

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Irony

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The use of a word or phrase to mean the exact opposite of its literal or expected meaning. There are three kinds of _____:

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Dramatic Irony

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The reader sees a character's errors, but the character does not.

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Verbal Irony

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The writer says one thing and means another.

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Situation Irony

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The purpose of a particular action differs greatly from the result.

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Malapropism

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A type of pun, or play on words, that results when two words become missed up in the speaker's mind - for example, "Don't put the horse before the cart."

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Metaphor

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A figure of speech in which a comparison is implied but not stated, such as "The winter is a bear."

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Meter

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A rhythmical pattern in verse that is made up of stressed and unstressed syllables.

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Mood

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The feeling a text evokes in the reader, such as sadness, tranquility, or elation.

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Moral

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A lesson a work of literature is teaching.

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Narration

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The telling of a story.

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Onomatopoeia

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The use of wound words to suggest meaning, as in buzz, click, or vroom.

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Paradox

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A contradictory statement that makes sense - for example, Hegel's paradox "Man learns from history that man learns nothing from history."

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Personification

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A literary device in which animals, ideas and things are represented as having human traits.

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Point of View

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The perspective from which a story is told.

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First Person Point of View

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The story is told from the point of view of one character.

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Third Person Point of View

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The story is told by someone outside the story.

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Omniscient Point of View

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The narrator of the story shares the thoughts and feelings of all the characters.

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Limited Omniscient Point of View

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The narrator shares the thoughts and feelings of one character.

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Camera Point of View

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The narrator records the action from his or her point of view, unaware of any of the other characters' thoughts of feelings. This perspective is also known as the objective view.

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Refrain

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The repetition of a line or phrase of a poem at regular intervals, particularly at the end of each stanza.

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Repetition

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The multiple use of a word, phrase, or idea for emphasis or rhythmic effect.

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Rhetoric

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Persuasive writing.

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Rhythm

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The regular or random occurrence of sound in poetry.

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Setting

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The time and place in which the action of a story takes place

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Simile

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A comparison of two unlike things, usually including the word like or as.

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Style

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How the author uses words, phrases, and sentences to form ideas.

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Symbol

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A person, place, thing or event used to represent something else, such as the white flag that represents surrender.

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Tone

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The overall feeling created by an author's use of words. (attitude)

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Transcendentalism

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During the mid-19th century in New England, several writers and intellectuals worked together to write, translate works, and publish and became known as transcendentalists. Their philosophy focused on protesting the Puritan ethic and materialism. They valued individualism, freedom, experimentation, and spirituality. Noted transcendentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Oliver Wendell Holmes.

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Verse

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A metric line of poetry. _____ is named based on the kind and number of feet composing it.

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Voice

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Distinctive features of a person's speech and speech patterns.

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Ballad

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a poem or song narrating a story in short stanzas. Traditional ballads are typically of unknown authorship, having been passed on orally from one generation to the next as part of the folk culture.

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Canto

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The main section of a long poem.

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Elegy

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A poem that is a mournful lament for the dead. Examples include William Shakespeare's "Elegy" from Cymbeline, Robert Louis Stevenson's "Requim," and Alfred Lord Tennyson's "In Memoriam."

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Epic

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A long narrative poem detailing a hero's deeds. Examples include The Aeneid by Virgil, The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer, Beowulf, Don Quixote by Miguel Cervantes, War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

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Haiku

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A type of Japanese poem that is written in 17 syllables with three lines of five, seven, and five syllables, respectively. Haiku expresses a single thought. Light of the moon Moves west, flowers' shadows Creep eastward.

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Limerick

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A humorous verse form of five anapestic (composed of feet that are short-short-long or unaccented-unaccented-accented) lines with a rhyme scheme of AABBA.

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Lyric

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A short poem about personal feelings and emotions.

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Sonnet

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A fourteen-line poem, usually written in iambic pentameter, with a varied rhyme scheme. The two main types of sonnet are the Petrarchan (or Italian) and the Shakespearean (or English). A Petrarchan sonnet opens with an octave that states a proposition and ends with a sestet that states the solution. A Shakespearean sonnet includes three quatrains and a couplet.

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Fable

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A short story or folktale that contains a moral, which may be expressed explicitly at the end as a maxim. Examples of Aesop's fables include The Country Mouse and the Town Mouse, The Tortoise and the Hare, and The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing.

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Fairytale

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A narrative that is made up of fantastic characters and creatures, such as witches, goblins, and fairies, and usually begins with the phrase "Once upon a time...." Examples include Rapunzel, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, and Little Red Riding Hood.

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Fantasy

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A genre that uses magic and other supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme and/or setting. Examples include J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, C.S. Lewis' The Chronicles of Narnia, and William Morris' The Well at the World's End.

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Folktale

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A narrative form, such as an epic, legend, myth, song, poem, or gable, that has been retold within a culture for generations. Examples include The People Could Fly retold by Virginia Hamilton and And the Green Grass Grew All Around: Folk Poetry from Everyone by Alvin Schwartz.

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Frame Tale

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A narrative technique in which the main story is composed primarily for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which is a story within a story. Examples include Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Ovid's Metamorphoses, and Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights.

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Historical Fiction

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Narrative fiction that is set in some earlier time and often contains historically authentic people, places or events - for example, Lincoln by Gore Vidal.

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Horror

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Fiction that is intended to frighten, unsettle, or scare the reader. Horror fiction often overlaps with fantasy and science fiction. Examples include Stephen King's The Shining, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, and Ray Bradbury's Something Wicked This Way Comes.

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Legend

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A narrative about human actions that is perceived by both the teller and the listeners to have take place within human history and that possesses certain qualities that give the tale the appearance of truth or reality. Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow is a well-known legend; others include King Arthur and The Holy Grail.

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Mystery

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A suspenseful story that deals with a puzzling crime. Examples include Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murder in Rue Morgue" and Charles Dickens' The Mystery of Edwin Drood.

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Myth

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Narrative fiction that involves gods and heroes or has a theme that expresses a culture's ideology. There are _____ from around the world. Examples of Greek _____ include Zues and the Olympians and Achilles and the Trojan War. Roman _____ include Hercules, Apollo and Venus.

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Novel

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An extended fictional prose narrative.

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Novella

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A short narrative, usually between 50 and 100 pages long. Examples include George Orwell's Animal Farm and Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis.

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Parody

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A text or performance that imitates and mocks an author or work.

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Romance

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A novel comprised of idealized events far removed from everyday life. This genre includes the subgenres gothic romance and medieval romance. Examples include Mary Shelly's Frankenstein, William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida, and King Horn (anonymous).

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Satire

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Literature that makes fun of social conventions or conditions, usually to evoke change.

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Science Fiction

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Fiction that deals with the current or future development of technological advances. Examples include Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five, George Orwell's 1984, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451.

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Short Story

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A brief fictional prose narrative. Examples include Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery," Washington Irving's "Rip van Winkle," D.H. Lawrence's "The Horse Dealer's Daughter," Arthur Conan Doyle's "Hound of the Baskervilles," and Dorothy Parker's "Big Blond."

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Tragedy

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Literature, often drama, ending in a catastrophic event for the protagonist(s) after he or she faces several problems or conflicts.

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Western

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A novel set in the western United States featuring the experiences of cowboys and frontiersmen. Examples include Zane Grey's Riders of the Purple Sage, Trail Driver; Larry McMurtry's Lonesome Dove; Conrad Richter's The Sea of Grass; Fran Striker's The Lone Ranger; and Owen Wister's The Virginian.

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Autobiography

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A person's account of his or her own life.

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Biography

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A story about a person's life written by another person.

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Document (letter, diary, journal)

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An expository piece written with eloquence that becomes part of the recognized literature of an era. Documents often reveal historical facts, the social mores of the times, and the thoughts and personality of the author. Some documents have recorded and influenced the history of the world. Examples include the Bible, the Koran, the Constitution of the United States, and Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf.

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Essay

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A document organized in paragraph form that can be long or short and can be in the form of a letter, dialogue, or discussion. Examples include Politics and the English Language by George Orwell, The American Scholar by Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Moral Essays by Alexander Pope.

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Greek and Classical Hellenistic Period (8th-2nd centuries BC

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Examples: Homer's The Iliad, Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, Aristophanes; Lysistrata, Aristotle's Organum, and Plato's The Republic.

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Roman Classical Period (1st century BC to 2nd century AD-5th century AD)

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Examples: Cicero's letters to Atticus, Brutus, Quintus, and others; Virgil's The Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, Polybius' universal history of Rome; Plutarch's "Life of Pericles"; and Lucian's Dialogues of the Gods.

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The Renaissance (13th-15th centuries)

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A period during which learning and the arts flourished in Europe. Examples: Dante's The Divine Comedy, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur.

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French Neoclassical Period (17th century)

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Examples: Racine's Andromaque and de la Fontaine's Fables choisies, mises en vers (selected fables versified).

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English Neoclassical Period (17th and 18th centuries)

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Examples: Dryden's The Conquest of Granada and "Alexander's Feast," Swift's The Battle of the Books and Gulliver's Travels, and Pope's The Rape of the Lock.

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German Neoclassical Period (18th and 19th centuries)

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Examples: Lessing's Zur Geschichte und Literatur (On History and Literature), von Schiller's Don Carlos, and Goethe's Faust.

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Old English Period (450-1066 AD) (British)

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Example: Beowulf

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Middle English Period (1066-1550) (British)

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Examples: Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, More's Utopia, Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, and the morality play Everyman.

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Elizabethan Period (1550-1625) (British)

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Examples: Shakespeare's Macbeth and Hamlet; Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great, Dr. Faustus, The Jew of Malta and Edward II; Bacon's Reports; and Spenser's The Faerie Queene.

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Puritan Period (1625-1660) (British)

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Examples: Walton's The Compleat Angler, Milton's "Lycidas," and Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress.

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Neoclassical Period (1660-1780) (British)

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Examples: Dryden's The Conquest of Granada and Pepys' Memoirs of the Royal Navy.

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Romantic Period (1780-1840) (British)

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Examples: Keats' Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems; Burns' "Auld Lang Syne" and "Tam o'Shanter"; Shelley's Prometheus Unbound; Byron's Don Juan; and Austen's Pride and Prejudice and Northanger Abbey.

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Victorian Period (1840-1900) (British)

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Examples: Dicken's Great Expectations, Tennyson's Poems, Hardy's Tess of the D'Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure, and Browning's Sonnets from the Portuguese.

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Modernism (1900-1945) (British)

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Examples: Yeats' In the Seven Woods, Remarques' All Quiet on the Western Front, and Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway.

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Postmodernism (1945- ) (British)

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Examples: Nietzche's The Antichrist, Orwell's 1984, and Eliot's "The Waste Land."

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Colonial Period (1630-1760) (American)

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Examples: Williams and Hooker's Bay Psalm Book, Franklin's Poor Richar'ds Almanack, Bradstreet's The Tenth Muse Sprung Up in America, and Edwards' The Freedom of the Will.

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Revolutionary Period (1760-1787) (American)

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Examples: The Declaration of Independence; Jefferson's Summary View of the Rights of British America; Freneau's The British Prison Ship, "The Wild Honeysuckle," and "The Indian Burying Ground"; Tyler's The Contrast (the first comedy performed in early American theatre); and Brown's The Power of Sympathy (the first American novel).

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Nationalist Period (1828-1836) (American)

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Examples: Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales, which included The Deerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Pioneers and The Prairie; Emerson's Nature, "The Over-Soul," "Compensation," and "Self-Reliance"; Irving's "Rip van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent; Poe's The Raven and Other Poems, Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque; and Longfellow's Evangeline, The Song of Hiawatha, The Courtship of Miles Standish, and Tales of a Wayside Inn, which included "Paul Revere's Ride."

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American Renaissance Period (1830-1860)

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Examples: Dickinson's poems "Life," "Love," and "Time and Eternity"; Melville's Moby-Dick, Whitman's "Oh Captain, My Captain!" and Leaves of Grass; and Thoreau's Walden.

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Modern Period (1900-1945) (American)

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Examples: Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court; London's White Fang and The Call of the Wild; Frost's "Nothing Gold Can Stay," "The Road Not Taken," and "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening"; T.S. Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alred Prufock," "The Waste Land," and "Hamlet and His Problems"; James' "Daisy Miller" and Washington Square; and Parker's Enough Rope and Death and Taxes.

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Contemporary (1945- present) (American)

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Examples: Miller's The Crucible and The Death of a Salesman; Morrison's Beloved; Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye; Updike's Rabbit, Run; Plath's The Bell Jar; and Vidal's Lincoln.

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Fostering Reading Appreciation and Motivation to Learn (Teaching Reading & Text Interpretation)

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- Using tradebooks, electronic texts, and the Internet - Using nonprint materials such as film, music, art and advertisements - Creating authentic literary experiences - Connecting students' prior knowledge and interests with texts - Reading aloud excerpts to students - Selecting quality texts and other lesson materials

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Teaching Vocabulary (Teaching Reading & Text Interpretation)

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- Linking vocabulary with text themes or concepts - Providing time to read and discuss quality texts - Teaching students the role of "Word Finder" in literature circles - Teaching students structural cues such as common prefixes, suffixes, and roots - Teaching students how to effectively use context cues to identify the meanings of words and phrases - Using graphic organizers to help students see relationships among vocabulary words

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Scaffolding

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involves an adult or a more capable peer providing structural supports to a student in a learning situation. The more capable the student becomes with a certain skill or concept, the less instructional scaffolding the adult or peer needs to provide. Scaffolding might take the form of a teacher reading aloud a portion of the text and then asking the student to repeat the same sentence, for example.

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Activating Prior Knowledge

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Also known as set induction, creating an anticipatory set is an activity at the start of a lesson that is used to set the stage for learning in order to motivate students and active prior knowledge. For example, a lesson on To Kill a Mockingbird might begin with primary source documents of trials set during the Civil Rights Movement. Other methods for activating prior knowledge in a lesson include: - Use of a concrete experience or object - Pretesting - Discussions - Anticipation guides

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Metacognition

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Metacognition is a person's ability to think about his or her own thinking and regulate his or her own thinking. - Ask students what they do before, during and after reading. - Teach students effective strategies to use before, during, and after reading in your content area. - Ask students to support their statements or responses with examples and text citations - ask why. - Encourage students to ask and create questions rather than just respond to the teacher's primary questions. - Allow time in class to discuss not only the content of your course, but also the processes people are using.

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Story Elements

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Antagonist - A person who opposes or competes with the main character; often the villain in the story. Character - A person or being in a narrative. Conflict- Opposing elements or characters in a plot. Person versus person - A character has a problem with one or more of the other characters. Person versus society - A character has a problem with an element of society; the school, an accepted way of doing things, the law, etc. Person versus self- A character has a problem determining what to do in a situation. Person versus nature- A character has a problem with nature: natural disasters, extreme heat, or freezing temperatures, for example. Person versus fate (God) - A character has to battle what appears to be an uncontrollable problem that is attributed to fate or God. Denouement - The outcome or resolution of plot in a story. Plot - The structure of a work of literature; the sequence of events. Protagonist - The main character or hero of a written work. Setting - The time and place in which a story occurs.

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Note Taking

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Common approaches to note-taking include the double-entry page and SQ3R (survey, question, read, recite, review.) On a double-entry notebook page, the student draws a line down the middle of the page. On the left side, he or she takes notes from the reading or lecture. After the reading or lecture, the student rereads the notes and writes his or her reactions, reflections and connections in the right-hand column next to the corresponding information on the left. The SQ3R method for note-taking while reading a text is widely used in schools today. The steps are as follows: 1) Survey: The student previews the chapter to assess the organization of the information. 2) Question: The student examines the chapter's headings and subheadings and rephrases them into questions. 3) Read: The student reads one section of the chapter at a time selectively, primarily to answer the questions. 4) Recite: The student answers each question in his or her own words and writes the answers in his or her notes. 5) Review: The student immediately reviews what has been learned.

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Graphic Organizers

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A graphic organizer is a note-taking guide used before, during, or after reading a text. Concept Map - A concept map is a diagram showing the relationships among concepts. They are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. Semantic feature analysis - Used to examine the similarities and differences of a group of items, people, events etc. This type of chart is often used to compare and contrast characteristics and for simple logic puzzles. Matrix - A matrix is an array or grid. Venn diagram - Venn diagrams or set diagrams are diagrams that show all hypothetically possible logical relations between a finite collection of sets (groups of things). Cause-effect - Also called sequence of events diagrams, are a type of graphic organizer that describe how events affect one another in a process. The student must be able to identify and analyze the cause(s) and the effect(s) of an event or process. In this process, the student realizes how one step affects the other. Cycle Map - Type of graphic organizer that shows how items are related to one another in a repeating cycle. Use a cycle diagram when there is no beginning and no end to a repeating process. In making a cycle diagram, the student must identify the main events in the cycle, how they interact, and how the cycle repeats. Sequence - List steps or events in time order (first, next, next, last). Problem-solution - List possible problems and possible solutions in the story. Continuum - Used to represent a continuum of data that occur in chronological (time) order or in sequential order.

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Anticipation Guides

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An anticipation guide is a lot like a pretest, although there is no right or wrong answers. An anticipation guide provides students with an opportunity to respond to and discuss a series of open-ended questions or opinion questions that address various themes, vocabulary words, and concepts that will appear in an upcoming text.

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Linguistics

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___________ is the formal study of the structures and processes of a language. Linguists strive to describe language acquisition and language in general. There are several key areas of study in this field: Phonetics: The study of the sounds of language and their physical properties Phonology: The analysis of how sounds function in a language or dialect Morphology: The study of the structure of words Semantics: The study of the meaning in language Syntax: The study of the structure of sentences Pragmatics: The role of context in the interpretation of meaning

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Language Acquistion

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We understand language acquisition and development through several frameworks, including Sociolinguistics: The study of language as it relates to society, including race, class, gender and age Ethnolinguistics: The study of language as it relates to culture, frequently associated with minority linguistic groups within the larger culture Psycholinguistics: The study of language as it relates to the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to learn language Historical and political influences on language acquisition: Some experts view every language as a dialect of an older communication form. For example, the Romance languages (French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc) are dialects of Latin. Political relationships also influence views of language as either a new entity or dialect. For example, English is thought to have two primary dialects - American English and British English. The United States and Great Britain are close political allies.

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Traditional Grammar: Sentence Structure, kinds of sentences

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A declarative sentence makes a statement and tells about a person, place, thing or idea. Example: Tory is my daughter. An interrogative sentence asks a question. Example: Is that my son Jimmy? An imperative sentence issues a command. Example: Please clear the dinner table. An exclamatory sentence communicates strong ideas or feelings. Example: That was a great shot! A conditional sentence expresses wishes or conditions contrary to fact. Example: If you were to hang onto the basketball rim, then you could experience the glory of every NBA player.

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Sentence Types

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A simple sentence can have a single subject or a compound subject and a single predicate or a compound predicate. The distinguishing factor is that a simple sentence has only one independent clause, and it has no dependent clauses. A simple sentence can contain one or more phrases. - Single subject, single predicate: My dog growls. - Compound subject, single predicate: My dog and cat growl. - Compound subject, compound predicate: My dog and my cat growl and appear agitated. - Independent clause with two phrases: I must have vicious pets from the pound in my town. A compound sentence is made up of two independent clauses. The clauses must be joined by a semicolon or by a comma and a coordinating conjuction. - My dog growls at the mailman, but my cat growls at her littermate. - My dog growls at the mailman; my cat growls at her littermate. A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. - When you pass the PRAXIS II test [dependent clause], you'll enjoy a career in teaching [independent clause]. - You will get a teaching job [independent clause], even though it will be challenging [dependent clause]. A compound/complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. - I just earned my teaching degree [independent clause], and I plan to get a teaching job [independent clause] because I need a career [dependent clause]. Effective Sentences Effective sentences are clear and concise. In addition, effective sentences employ imagery, precise language, and rhythm. Ineffective sentences often contain one or more of the following problems: - Unnatural language, such as clichés or jargon - Nonstandard language or unparallel construction - Errors such as pronoun referent problems - Short, stilted sentences; run-on sentences; or sentences fragments

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Parts of Speech: Nouns

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Types of nouns: Common nouns do not name specific people, places, or things. Common nouns are not capitalized. Examples: person, animal, car Proper nouns name particular people, places, or things. Proper nouns are capitalized. Examples: President Clinton, Chicago, Judaism Concrete nouns name a thing that is tangible (it can be seen, heard, touched, smelled or tasted). They are either proper or common. Examples: dog, Campus Cinema, football Abstract nouns name an idea, condition, or feeling (in other words, something that is not concrete). Examples: ideals, justice, Americana Collective nouns name a group or unit. Examples: gaggle, herd, community Number of nouns: Singular: book, library, child, bacterium, man Plural: books, libraries, children, bacteria, men Gender of nouns: Masculine: father, brother, uncle, men, bull Feminine: mother, sister, aunt, women, cow Neuter: window, shrub, door, college, car Indefinite: chairperson, politician, president, professor, flight attendant Case of nouns: Nominative case noun can be the subject of a clause or the predicate noun when it follows the verb be Possessive case noun shows possession or ownership Objective case noun can be a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition

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Parts of Speech: Verbs

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Types of verbs: Transitive verbs takes direct objects - words or word groups that complete the meaning of a verb by naming a receiver of the action. Subject Verb Direct Object Example: The secondary English student learns the methods of the master teacher. Intransitive verbs take no objects or complements. Example: An airplane flew overhead. Linking or connecting verbs connect the subject and the subject complement (an adjective, noun, or noun equivalent) Example: It was rainy. An auxiliary or helping verb comes before another verb. Example: She must have passed the PRAXIS II exam. Verb Tenses: Present tense is used to describe situations that exist in the present time. Example: Celia and Tory attend Curtis Corner Middle School. Past tense is used to tell about what happened in the past. Example: They attended Wakefield Elementary School. Future tense is used to express action that will take place in the future. Example: Next year, they will attend Broad Rock High School. Present perfect tense is used when action began in the past but continues into the present. Example: Annie has attended a charter school for two years. Past perfect tense is used to express action that began in the past and happed prior to another past action. Example: Dr. Hicks reported that redistricting had alleviated the crowding problem in schools. Future perfect tense is used to express action that will begin in the future and will be completed in the future. Example: By this time next year, Tory and Celia will have graduated eighth grade. Verbals versus verbs: An infinitive phrase is usually made up of to and the base form of a verb, such as to order or to abandon. It can function as an adjective, adverb, or noun. A participle is a verb form that usually ends in -ing or -ed. Participles operate as adjectives but also maintain some characteristics of verbs. You might think of a participle as a verbal adjective. Examples include barking dog and painted fence. A gerund phrase is made up of a present participle (a verb ending in -ing) and always functions as a noun. Example: Gardening is my favorite leisure activity.

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Parts of Speech: Pronouns

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Pronouns There are three types of pronouns: - Simple: I, you, he, she, it we, they, who, what - Compound: Itself, myself, anybody, someone, everything - Phrasal: Each other, one another Pronoun antecedents: An antecedent is the noun to which a pronoun refers. Each pronoun must agree with its antecedent. Example: Jimmy is playing in a basketball tournament tomorrow. He hopes to play well. Classes of pronouns: - Personal pronouns take the place of nouns. Example: Coach Spence changed his starting line-up and won the game. - Relative pronouns relate adjective clauses to the nouns or pronouns they modify. Example: A basketball player who plays with intensity and skill gets a place in the starting line-up. - Indefinite pronouns usually refer to unnamed or unknown people or things. Example: Perhaps you know somebody who can slam-dunk a basketball. - Interrogative pronouns ask questions. Example: Who are you and why do you play basketball? - Demonstrative pronouns point out people, places, or things without naming them. Example: This should be an easy win. They are undefeated.

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Parts of Speech: Adjectives

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describe or modify nouns or pronouns. Example: big, blue, old, tacky, shiny, an

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Parts of Speech:Adverbs

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__________ describe four different things: - Time: tomorrow, monthly, momentarily, presently - Place: there, yonder, here, backward - Manner: exactly, efficiently, clearly, steadfastly - Degree: greatly, partly, too, incrementally

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Phrases and Clauses

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groups of related words that operate as a single part of speech, such as a verb, verbal, prepositional, appositive, or absolute. For example, "in the doghouse" is a prepositional phrase. groups of related words that have both a subject and a predicate. For example, "I have a tendency to procrastinate when I have a high-stakes assignment" contains the clause "I have a tendency to procrastinate."

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Punctuation

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- A comma is used between two independent clauses, to separate adjectives, to separate contrasted elements, to set off appositives, to separate items in a list, to enclose explanatory words, after an introductory phrase, after an introductory clause, to set off a nonrestrictive phrase, to ensure clarity, in numbers, to enclose titles, in a direct address, to set off dialogue, to set off items in an address, and to set off dates. Clearly, commas have several uses and rule that make their use a challenge for writers! - A period is used at the end of a sentence, after an initial or abbreviation, or as a decimal point. - A question mark is used at the end of a direct or indirect question and to show uncertainty. - A semicolon is used to separate groups that include commas and to set off independent clauses. - An exclamation point is used to express strong feeling. - An apostrophe is used in contractions, to form plurals, to form singular possessives, to form plural possessives, in compound nouns, to show shared possession, and to express time or amount. - A dash is used for emphasis, to set off interrupted speech, to set off an introductory series, and to indicate a sudden break. - Parentheses are used to set off explanatory information and to set off full sentences. - Brackets are used to set off added words, editorial corrections, and clarifying information. - A hyphen is used between numbers, between fractions, in a special series, to create new words, and to join numbers.

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Euphemism

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a socially accepted word or phrase used to replace unacceptable language, such as expressions for bodily functions or body parts. ______________ also are used as substitutes for straightforward words to tactfully conceal or falsify meaning. Example: My grandmother passed away last April.

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Doublespeak

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__________ is language that is intended to be evasive or to conceal. The term began to be used in the 1950s and is similar to newspeak, a term coined by George Orwell in the novel 1984. ______________is related to euphemism but is distinguished by its use by government, military, and business organizations. Example: "downsized" actually means fired or loss of a job

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Stages of the Writing Process

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1. Prewriting (also called planning or rehearsal): This stage of the writing process involves gathering and selecting ideas. English teachers can help students prewrite in several ways: by creating lists, researching, brainstorming, reading to discover more about the author's style, talking, collecting memorabilia or clips from other texts, and free-writing. 2. Drafting: In this stage, students begin writing, connecting, and developing ideas. Depending on the purpose for writing and the audience of the piece, there may be few drafts or many. 3. Revising: This stage of the writing process involves rewriting, or "re-seeing." At this point, the writer looks at the piece again, either alone or with the help of a teacher or capable peer. The writer strives to ensure that the reader is able to make meaning of the piece of writing. In the revising stage, emphasis is placed on examining sentence structure, word choice, voice, and organization of the piece. 4. Editing: This stage involves checking for style and conventions - spelling, grammar, usage, and punctuation. At this point in the writing process, the writer ensures that errors in conventions will not be intrusive when others read the piece of writing. 5. Publishing: The "going public" stage. A writer can share his or her writing with a larger audience in many ways. Teachers can encourage students to publish their writing in newsletters, online publications, performance, brochures, and magazines. 6. Evaluating: In this stage, the writer looks back at his or her work and self-evaluates, and the audience evaluates the effectiveness of the writing.

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Writing Activities

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- Personal writing: Students can express their innermost thoughts, feelings, and responses through a variety of personal writing, including journal writing, diaries, logs, personal narratives, and personal essays. - Workplace writing: Middle- and secondary-level students must learn how to prepare resumes, cover letters, job applications, and business letters. - Subject writing: In subject writing activities, middle- and secondary-level students write interviews, accounts, profiles, or descriptions to capture the meaning of the subject being written about. - Creative writing: Creative writing provides students with the opportunity to play with language, to express emotions, to articulate stories, or to develop a drama for others to enjoy. - Persuasive writing: In this genre of writing, students learn rhetorical strategies to persuade others, such as by writing editorials, arguments, commentaries, and advertisements. - Scholarly writing: Essays, research papers, bibliographies - these types of scholarly writing are the most prevalent in the middle- and secondary-level classrooms.

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Types of Source Materials for Writing

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- Reference works: Dictionaries, encyclopedias, writers' reference handbooks, books of lists, almanacs, thesauruses, books of quotations, and so on. - Internet: Each of the types of references works above is available online. In addition, writers can use search engines or portals (sites that list many resources and websites) to gather ideas and information. - Student-created sources: For example, a student's personal dictionary of words to know or spell, note cards, graphic organizers, oral histories, and journals. - Other sources: Film, art, media, and so on.

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MLA vs. APA citations

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___: Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 1945. ___: Salinger, J.D. (1945). The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown and Company.

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Organization of a passage

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- Chronological order: The writer shows order of time or the steps in a process. - Classification: The writer explains the relationships between terms or concepts. - Illustration: The topic sentence is stated and then followed by the detail. - Climax: The details are stated first, followed by the topic sentence. - Location: In this structure, the writer describes a person, place, or thing and organizes the description in a logical manner. - Comparison: The writer demonstrates similarities and differences between two or more subjects. - Cause and effect: The writer shows the relationship between events and their results.

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Types of Discourse

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- Creative: Speech or written form in which one expresses thoughts and feelings with imagination and creativity. - Expository: Speech or written form in which one explains or describes. - Persuasive: Speech or written form in which one sets forth to convince. - Argument: Speech or written form that debates or argues a topic in a logical way.

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Rhetorical Strategies

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- Analogies are comparisons of two pairs that have the same relationship. - Extended metaphor is a metaphor (a comparison of two unlike things) used throughout a work or over a series of lines in prose or poetry. - Appeal to authority is a type of argument in logic in which an expert or knowledgeable other is cited for the purpose of strengthening the argument. - Appeal to emotion is a type of argument in which the author appeals to the reader's emotion (fear, security, pity, flattery) to prove the argument.

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Rhetorical Features

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- Style is the way the author uses words, phrases, and sentences to formulate ideas. In addition, style is thought of as the ways one writer's work is distinguished from the work of others. - Tone is the overall feeling created in a piece of writing. The tone of a piece can be humorous, satiric, serious, morose, etc. - Point of view is the perspective from which a piece is written. First-person point of view is told from the view of one of the characters. Third-person point of view is told by someone outside the story. Third-person point of view can be told form three different views: 1) omniscient - in which the narrator shares the thoughts and feelings of all the characters; 2) limited omniscient - in which the narrator shares the thoughts and feelings of only one character; and 3) camera view - in which the storyteller records the action from his or her point of view, unaware of any of the other characters' thoughts or feelings, as if taking a film of the event. - Sarcasm is the use of positive feedback or cutting wit to mock someone. - Counterpoints is the use of contrasting ideas to communicate a message. - Praise is the use of positive messages to recognize or influence others.

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British Romantics

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Jane Austen - Pride and Prejudice, Northanger Abbey Lord Byron- Don Juan John Keats - Isabella Percy Bysshe Shelley - Prometheus Unbound

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Middle English

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Geoffrey Chaucer - Canterbury Tales (Pilgrims hold storytelling contest on their walk to shrine at Canterbury Cathedral) Thomas More - Utopia Sir Thomas Malory - Le Morte D'Arthur

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Elizabethan

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William Shakespeare - Macbeth, Sonnet 18, Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida

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Victorian (British)

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Charles Dickens - Great Expectations, The Mystery of Edwin Drood Alfred Lord Tennyson - "The Lady Shallot," "In Memoriam," Poems Thomas Hardy - "To a Lady," Winter's Words, Tess of the D'Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure Elizabeth Barrett Browning - Sonnets from the Portuguese

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Modernism (British)

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Virginia Woolf - Mrs. Dalloway James Joyce - Ulysses

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Postmodernism (British)

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George Orwell - 1984, Animal Farm Fredrick Nietzche - The Antichrist Kurt Vonnegut - Slaughterhouse-Five, Cat's Cradle Thomas Pynchon - V, The Crying of Lot 49

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Colonial American

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Anne Bradstreet - The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America

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American Modernism

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Mark Twain - The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court Jack London - The Call of the Wild, White Fang Robert Frost - "The Road Not Taken," "Nothing Gold Can Stay," "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" T.S. Eliot - "The Waste Land," "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," "Hamlet and his Problems" Dorothy Parker - Death and Taxes, "Big Blond," Enough Rope F. Scott Fitzgerald

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Contemporary American

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Arthur Miller - The Crucible, Death of a Salesman Toni Morrison -Beloved (Sethe and daughter Denver live in haunted 124 Bluestone), The Bluest Eyes Sylvia Plath - The Bell Jar J.D. Salinger - The Catcher in the Rye Gore Vidal - Lincoln, The City and the Pillar John Updike - Rabbit, Run Langston Hughes

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Harlem Renaissance

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(Zora Neale Hurston, Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen)

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Metaphysical Poets

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(John Donne, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert)

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Transcendentalism

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(Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau)

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William Wordsworth

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helped launch Romantic period with publication Lyrical Ballads

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Tennessee Williams

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A Street Car Named Desire

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Oscar Wilde

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The Importance of Being Earnest

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Elie Wiesel

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Night

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Walt Whitman

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"Oh Captain, My Captain"; Leaves of Grass; Beat, Beat, Drums

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Eudora Welty

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The Optimists Daughter, wrote about American south

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H.G. Wells

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The War of the Worlds, The Island of Dr. Moreau, The Invisible Man,

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Alice Walker

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The Color Purple

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Virgil

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The Aeneid

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Leo Tolstoy

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War and Peace

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J.R.R. Tolkein

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The Lord of the Rings

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Thackeray

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Vanity Fair (Amelia (plain) and Becky (ruthless) and their lives, title is from pilgrims progress where they stop at fair in town called vanity)

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Amy Tan

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The Joy Luck Club

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Jonathon Swift

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Gulliver's Travels

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Harriett Beecher Stowe

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Uncle Tom's Cabin (Tom is sold, Eliza runs away with son Harry, Tom is beaten to death saving other slaves, stereotypical black roles "mammy")

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John Steinbeck

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Grapes of Wrath, East of Eden

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Alvin Schwartz

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And the Green Grass Grew All Around: Folk Poetry from Everyone

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Mary Shelley

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Frankenstein

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George Bernard Shaw

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Pygmalion

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Edgar Allan Poe

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"The Murder in the Rue Morgue," The Raven and Other Poems, Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque

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Plato

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The Republic, Allegory of the Cave

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Ovid

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Metamorphoses

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Herman Melville

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Moby Dick

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Harper Lee

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To Kill a Mockingbird

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CS Lewis

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The Chronicles of Narnia

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Stephen King

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The Shining

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Daniel Keyes

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Flowers for Algernon

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Franz Kafka

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The Metamorphosis, The Trial, The Castle, Amerika

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Ibsen

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A Doll's House

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Zora Neale Hurston

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Their Eyes Were Watching God (Janie, told by her friend, of her 3 marriages)

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Langston Hughes

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"Harlem," "Po' Boy Blues"

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Homer

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The Iliad, The Odyssey

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Benjamin Franklin

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The Contrast

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Ben Jonson

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______________________ was an English playwright, poet, actor and literary critic of the 17th century, whose artistry exerted a lasting impact upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours.

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Renaissance Movement

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The cultural rebirth that occurred in Europe from roughly the fourteenth through the middle of the seventeenth centuries, based on the rediscovery of the literature of Greece and Rome. William Shakespeare. Christopher Marlowe. John Milton. John Donne. Ben Jonson. Edmund Spenser.

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Enlightenment Movement

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The Enlightenment was an age of unprecedented optimism in the potential of knowledge and reason to understand and change the world (see Enlightenment). The movement flourished across Western Europe, especially in France and England. For the first time in history, all fields of knowledge were subjected to unrelenting critical examination (which continues to this day). The fierce rationalism of the Enlightement was compatible with the aesthetic ideals of classicism (structure, unity, clarity, restraint; see Western Aesthetics), which characterize much creative literature of the age. Some writers, however, felt overly constrained by such aesthetic qualities, yearning instead to express raw, unbridled passion. This approach, which emerged in late Enlightenment Germany (and subsequently flourished across the West), is known as Romanticism. Francis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant.

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Romanticism Movement

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First and foremost, ____________ is concerned with the individual more than with society. The individual consciousness and especially the individual imagination are especially fascinating for the Romantics. "Melancholy" was quite the buzzword for the Romantic poets, and altered states of consciousness were often sought after in order to enhance one's creative potential. There was a coincident downgrading of the importance and power of reason, clearly a reaction against the Enlightenment mode of thinking. Nevertheless, writers became gradually more invested in social causes as the period moved forward. Thanks largely to the Industrial Revolution, English society was undergoing the most severe paradigm shifts it had seen in living memory. The response of many early Romantics was to yearn for an idealized, simpler past. In particular, English Romantic poets had a strong connection with medievalism and mythology. The tales of King Arthur were especially resonant to their imaginations. On top of this, there was a clearly mystical quality to Romantic writing that sets it apart from other literary periods. Of course, not every Romantic poet or novelist displayed all, or even most of these traits all the time. (American) Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne (British) William Blake, William Wordworth, Samuel Taylor Cooleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley,

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Realism

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_________, as you might guess by its title, is all about portraying real life. These writers write about regular folks—bored housewives, petty government officials, poor spinsters, poor teenagers—living ordinary lives. Let's face it: most of us don't live crazy exciting lives, after all. What these writers are really good at doing is showing us how even ordinary lives are meaningful, and—hello—always full of drama.--reacting against romantics Leo Tolstoy, George Eliot, Gustave Flaubert, Honore de Balzac, Charles Dickens,

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Naturalism

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___________, a literary genre that started as a literary movement in late nineteenth century in literature, film, theater and art. It is a type of extreme realism. This movement suggested the role of family background, social conditions and environment in shaping human character. Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, Jack London, Frank Norris and Edith Wharton

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Modernism

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Charles Darwin, who forwarded a theory of evolution and natural selection Sigmund Freud, who pioneered psychoanalysis and revolutionized the way people thought about the brain Karl Marx, who analyzed class inequalities (to say the very least) Friedrich Nietzsche, who turned the world on its head when he proclaimed that "God is dead." Yowza. Famous modernist writers include T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, and Wallace Stevens in poetry; Virginia Woolf, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, and James Joyce in the novel; Bertholt Brecht in drama, and artists like Pablo Picasso and Duchamp. If you spend a few hours poking around these masters' works, you'll see what we mean about bucking tradition. And then some.

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Existentialism

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Existentialism is a movement in philosophy and literature that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It began in the mid-to-late 19th Century, but reached its peak in mid-20th Century France. Franz Kafka

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Beat Generation

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Influenced by Romanticism, started in the 1950s Allen Ginsberg's Howl

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