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Word Choice

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Word choice refers to a writer's selection of words as determined by a number of factors, including meaning (both denotative and connotative), specificity, level of diction, tone, and audience.

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Conjunctions

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a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the same clause (e.g., and, but, if ).

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Word Order

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the sequence of words in a sentence, especially as governed by grammatical rules and as affecting meaning.

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Subject-Verb Agreement

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Subject verb agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This means both need to be singular or both need to be plural. (ex. Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room. Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)

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Code Switching

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the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation.

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Negative Transfer

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the obstruction of or interference with new learning because of previous learning, as when a U.S. tourist in England learns to drive on the left side of the road.

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Avoidance

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The action of keeping away from or not doing something:

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Displacement

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In linguistics, a characteristic of language that allows users to talk about things and events other than those occurring in the here and now.

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Register

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In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.

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Pronouns

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A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively.

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Prepositions

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a word or set of words that indicates location (in, near, beside, on top of) or some other relationship between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence (about, after, besides, instead of, in accordance with).

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Adjectives

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that it is a word that describes or clarifies a noun. Adjectives describe nouns by giving some information about an object's size, shape, age, color, origin or material. ex. red car

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Adverbs

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is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Many adverbs end in "-ly". (ex. Financially Willfully Abruptly Endlessly Firmly)

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Verb tense

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The tense of a verb is determined by when the action took place. The three tenses are: The Past Tense The Present Tense The Future Tense

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Plural Inflection

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Inflection is the name for the extra letter or letters added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in their different grammatical forms. Nouns are inflected in the plural, verbs are inflected in the various tenses, and adjectives are inflected in the comparative/superlative. Here are some of the most important inflection rules:

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Adjective-noun co-occurrence

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describing word followed by person place or thing. (ex. black dog)

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Determiner-noun co-occurrence

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In grammar, a determiner is a word or a group of words that introduces a noun. Determiners include articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, and possessive determiners.

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Definite article

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THE is called a definite article. "Definite" means "specific". Use THE when talking about something which is already known to the listener or which has been previously mentioned, introduced, or discussed. Examples: I have a cat. The cat is black.

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Indefinite article

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"Indefinite" means "not specific". Use A(AN) when you are talking about a thing in general, NOT a specific thing. Examples: I need a phone. Not a specific phone, any phone

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Proper noun

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a name used for an individual person, place, or organization, spelled with initial capital letters, e.g., Larry, Mexico, and Boston Red Sox.

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Gerund

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a form that is derived from a verb but that functions as a noun, in English ending in -ing, e.g., asking in do you mind my asking you?.

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Figurative language

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Figurative language is language that uses words or expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation. (ex. Poised between going on and back, pulled Both ways taut like a tight-rope walker)

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Superlative adjectives

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A superlative adjective compares three or more nouns. This takes the comparison of nouns to the highest degree. An example would be: "My mother's cooking is the best."

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Relative clauses

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Relative clauses are clauses starting with the relative pronouns who*, that, which, whose, where, when. They are most often used to define or identify the noun that precedes them. (ex. Do you know the girl who started in grade 7 last week? Can I have the pencil that I gave you this morning?)

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Comparative structures

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The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages or dialects.

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Informal register

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Informal language is more common when we speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages.

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Consonant clusters

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In linguistics, a consonant cluster or consonant sequence is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits.

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Vowels in initial position

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ex. /ey/= able

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Voiceless consonants

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Unvoiced consonants do not use this vibration. Instead they make sound using the movement of air through your teeth, tongue, lips and other articulators. Unvoiced consonants in English: /p/ as in pea /t/ as in tea /?/ as in cheap

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Word stress

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A word is normally stressed on the first syllable, unless there is a reason to put the stress somewhere else.

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Assimilation

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Assimilation is a general term in phonetics for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or identical to a neighboring sound. In the opposite process, dissimilation, sounds become less similar to one another. Assimilation is the influence of a sound on a neighboring sound so that the two become similar or the same. For example, the Latin prefix in- 'not, non-, un-' appears in English as il-, im-. and ir- in the words illegal, immoral, impossible (both m and p are bilabial consonants), and irresponsible as well as the unassimilated original form in- in indecent and incompetent.

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Stressed syllables

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1 Stress on first syllable rule example Most 2-syllable nouns PRESent, EXport, CHIna, TAble Most 2-syllable adjectives PRESent, SLENder, CLEVer, HAPpy 2 Stress on last syllable rule example Most 2-syllable verbs to preSENT, to exPORT, to deCIDE, to beGIN

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Vowel reduction

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vowel reduction is any of various changes in the acoustic quality of vowels, which are related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, or position in the word (e.g. for Creek language[1]), and which are perceived as "weakening". It most often makes the vowels shorter as well.

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Falling intonation

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Standard unemphatic falling intonation is the most common type of intonation in English. It is used in statements (declarative sentences), special questions, commands (imperative sentences), exclamatory sentences, in the first part of disjunctive questions and in the last part of alternative questions. (Different types of sentences are described in Basic Word Order in the section Grammar.) The final fall in English is used on the last stressed syllable of a sentence and falls stronger and deeper than the fall in Russian. (ex. We live in MOScow. She is ten years OLD.)

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Consonant voicing

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VOICED or VOICELESS The distinction is based on whether the vocal chords vibrate when the sound is produced (voiced), or whether they remain still and do not vibrate (voiceless). (See item K. in Figure 1. for the location of the vocal chords within the trachea). Examples of voiced and voiceless consonants include: voiced: b, d, z, g voiceless: p, t, s, k

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Nasalization

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In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is [n].

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Aspiration

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Aspiration is also a feature of phonation. The airstream mechanism is how the air moves through the vocal tract during articulation. Most languages have exclusively pulmonic egressive consonants, but ejectives, clicks, and implosives use different mechanisms.

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Flapping

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In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as the tongue) is thrown against another.

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Devoicing

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In PHONETICS, the process by which SPEECH sounds that are normally voiced are made voiceless immediately after a voiceless obstruent: for example, the /r/ in cream /kri?m/ and the /w/ in twin /tw?n/. VOICE is slow to build up at the onset of speaking and fades at the end, so that voiced obstruents (stop and fricative consonants) are partly or wholly devoiced in initial and final position, as with the initial and final /d/ in dead /d?d/ when spoken in isolation.

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Epenthesis

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epenthesis is the insertion of an extra sound into a word. Adjective: epenthetic. Verb: epenthesize. Also known as intrusion.

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Metathesis

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is the re-arranging of sounds or syllables in a word, or of words in a sentence. Most commonly it refers to the switching of two or more contiguous sounds, known as adjacent metathesis[1] or local metathesis:[2] foliage > **foilage cavalry > **calvary

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Dipthong

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In phonetics, a diphthong is a vowel in which there is a noticeable sound change within the same syllable.From greek- 2 sounds "If you say the words hat and lip, you can hear that the vowel sound in each is singular in nature; that is, each contains only one kind of sound. But if you say the words out, bite, and toil, you will hear that the vowel sound of each, though restricted to one syllable, is composed of two different kinds of sound. These dual vowels are called diphthongs (literally, 'two voices' or 'two sounds'), as opposed to the singular vowels, which are monophthongs ('one voice' or 'one sound')."

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Short vowel sound

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A short vowel sound is a vowel sound that does not follow this rule. When reading a word that uses a short vowel sound, will say the sound that the letter can make that is not its actual name. So in the case of "A," the word "main" might have a long "A" sound because we pronounce the "A" as /?/, whereas the word "man" has a short vowel sound.

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Secondary stress

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is the weaker of two degrees of stress in the pronunciation of a word; the stronger degree of stress being called primary.

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Authentic Writing Task

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-Rooted in a real life context (ex. Asking students to write an email to a classmate about what they plan to do over the weekend.)

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How to promote ELLs acquisition of content area vocabulary?

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Using targeted, context embedded instruction that incorporates receptive language skills, visuals & targeted language instruction

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Rising intonation

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Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in speech. (ex. Would you like coffee?)

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Overgeneralization

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In linguistics, overgeneralization is the application of a grammatical rule in cases where it doesn't apply. The term overgeneralization is most often used in connection with language acquisition by children. For example, a young child may say "foots" instead of "feet,"

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Fossilization

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The point at which no further learning seems possible. Fossilization in language learning may occur when students feel their communicative needs have already been met ("I can get by so why bother" syndrome).

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Interference

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multilingual writers commit errors when they over-generalize the grammatical patterns of their native language (L1) to English. (Similarly, this theory suggests that students will transfer the grammatical patterns of native dialects of English into their school writing.) This theory comes to us courtesy of our colleagues who teach ESL and foreign languages.

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Comparative adjectives

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Comparative adjectives are used to show what quality one thing has more or less than the other. They normally come before any other adjectives. (ex. The man on the left is taller than the man on the right. The man on the right is shorter than the man on the left.)

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Demonstrative pronouns

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demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things: near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those)

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Possessive pronouns

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Possessive pronouns refer to something which belongs to someone or something. They can take the place of both the pronoun and the noun which is possessed, and they're generally found at the end of the clause or sentence. The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs and whose. ex. The green shirt is mine; the red one is his.

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How to facilitate communication between home and school for ELLS?

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Make handouts accessible to ELLS & their families, translate to native language. Give handouts at a back to school night

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How to relay important school info (guidelines & protocols) to ELLS and their families?

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Go over relevant guidelines and protocols of the school system. (ex. Families may be unfamiliar with how things work in the US such as a bus system)

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How to assess ELLs productive language skills?

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Skills involving speaking and writing. Language ELLs are asked to produce. (ex. Asking a pair of ELLs to stand in front of the class, select a topic from a fish bowl & discuss)

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How to interpret ELLs assessment results?

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If the majority scores between 90-100%, teachers can continue to build on knowledge that students evidenced in the assessment while exploring new content and skills.

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How to teach ELLs about register, or the use of language within a specific social setting.

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How language used is different in formal & informal settings (ex. Having students role play activity where they simulate speaking with their boss or going out with friends)

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Stephen Krashen

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Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis.

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The Input Hypothesis

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-Stresses that learner input should be based slightly beyond learners current receptive level so that the learner can progress. The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language - how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. We can then define 'Comprehensible Input' as the target language that the learner would not be able to produce but can still understand. It goes beyond the choice of words and involves presentation of context, explanation, rewording of unclear parts, the use of visual cues and meaning negotiation. The meaning successfully conveyed constitutes the learning experience.

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Fossilization

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-Getting stuck at a specific stage ("I can get by so why bother" syndrome)

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Pidginization

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Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs when people who do not speak the same language come into contact. It involves the simplification of the contacting language and the exploitation of linguistic common denominators.

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L1 Interference

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Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crosslinguistic influence) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language.

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Code switching

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In linguistics, code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation. Multilinguals—speakers of more than one language—sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.

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Students placement in & exit from ELL program

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It is most important to consider national, state and local mandates when exiting students from an ESOL program

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ELLSs with different educational backgrounds

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-Students may lack background knowledge depending where they came from

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Discourse analysis approach

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Students become aware of different texts written for native speakers that serve for different purposes. Students can then familiarize themselves with various linguistic and cultural features that exist within the target language. The first step would be to expose students to a variety of written genres.

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Communicative language teaching

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-authentic, real world resources - ex. photo copies of advertisements from English magazines

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Positive feedback

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'receive praise for something you knocked out of the park'

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Indirect feedback

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Indicates where mistake is made but does not actually correct the mistakes. (ex. circling an error and having student correct it)

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Metalinguistic feedback

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this type of recast shows the students or forces them to think about why something in the language functions the way that it does, ie: "Is that how you would say it in English?"

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Direct feedback

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Specifically pointing out errors. (ex. circling an error and saying exactly what was wrong with it and what to fix)

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Benefits of self correction

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1. Students can take more ownership in their learning 2. By making corrections on their own, students are more prone to acquiring/internalizing new language

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Recasting

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A Recast is what the teacher says with the purpose of helping a student notice his or her mistakes and repair it on his or her own. Several different types of recasts are listed below.

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Comprehensive error correction

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Specifically making errors easily understood to students. The old school way of correcting.

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Elicitation

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this type of recast tries to get the students to give you what you are looking for in an answer (specific answer) Elicitation is a technique used to discreetly gather information. It is a conversation with a specific purpose: collect information that is not readily available and do so without raising suspicion that specific facts are being sought.

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Selective error correction

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Being mindful about what errors to correct. Which are the most important to point out?

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Planning instruction that supports different learning styles

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Planning for audio, visual & kinesthetic learning. (ex. labeling different tables in classroom as different food groups & then asking students to place appropriate foods at different tables.

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3 types of learning styles

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Audio, Visual, Kinesthetic

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Kinesthetic learners

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Hand on/touching

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According to federal guidelines, providing equal educational opportunities to ELLs is primarily based on-

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Working to overcome the language and educational barriers ELLS face.

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Lau v. Nichols

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Equal educational opportunities for ELLs can be provided only when schools work to overcome the language & educational barriers that ELLs encounter in a school setting. Simply providing them access to the same facilities is NOT enough.

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Pidginization

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Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs when people who do not speak the same language come into contact. It involves the simplification of the contacting language and the exploitation of linguistic common denominators.

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Foreigner talk

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A simplified version of a language that's sometimes used by native speakers when addressing non-native speakers. "Foreigner talk is closer to baby talk than to pidgin," says Eric Reinders. "Pidgins, creoles, baby talk, and foreigner talk are quite distinct as spoken but nonetheless tend to be perceived as similar by those adult native speakers who are not fluent in pidgin" (Borrowed Gods and Foreign Bodies, 2004).

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Circumlocation

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1. The use of unnecessarily wordy language, especially in being vague or evasive. 2. A roundabout or evasive expression: Circumlocutions like "go to the bathroom" are often used in place of words that are considered vulgar or indelicate.

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How to address important social issues within an ELL classroom

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-Teacher can ask students to discuss reactions about several biased statments. ("Cats are better than dogs.) (ex. going over the negative effects of stereotyping.)

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Negative effects of stereotyping

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Give students real world example. (ex. Cats are better than dogs.) to lead into a discussion

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Primary aspects of cultural assimilation

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Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group.

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Principles of individualist cultures

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Individualistic culture is a society which is characterized by individualism, not collectivism.

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Formative assessment

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Formative assessment including diagnostic testing is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment.

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Standardized assessment

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Standardized assessment is a lens into the classroom. It sheds light on why a child might be struggling, succeeding, or accelerating on specific elements of their grade-level standards. Results from standardized tests help inform the next step in learning for our students. (At the end)

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Performance assessment

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Performance assessment, also known as alternative or authentic assessment, is a form of testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a ready-made list.

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Diagnostic assessment

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Diagnostic assessment is an essential device in a teacher's "tool kit". It can be used to diagnose strengths and areas of need in all students. Diagnostic assessment involves the gathering and careful evaluation of detailed data using students' knowledge and skills in a given learning area.

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Language & content based learning

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Teaching English skills as well as content at the same time. (ex. Math, Science, Social Studies)

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Brainstorming

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produce an idea or way of solving a problem by holding a spontaneous group discussion.

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Inductive reasoning

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Inductive reasoning is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior.

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Student centered instruction

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Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student.

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Student collaboration

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Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together.

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Deductive reasoning

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Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning is sometimes referred to as top-down logic. Its counterpart, inductive reasoning, is sometimes referred to as bottom-up logic.

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Collectivist cultures

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Collectivist cultures, such as those of China, Korea, and Japan, emphasize family and work group goals above individual needs or desires. Collectivism and individualism deeply pervade cultures. People simply take their culture's stance for granted.

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A structured immersion program

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ESL students are taught content area material in English. There is no targeted ESL instruction, however a teacher can use students L1 to provide clarification.

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Two way bilingual program

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Dual language program is sometimes referred to as two-way bilingual program. In a dual language classroom, half the student population is made up of native English speakers, and the other half is comprised of students who speak the same foreign language. Teachers have to conduct half of the entire course in English and the other half in a foreign language. This program benefits both the English-speaking students and the foreign language-speaking students, because they all get to learn a new language.

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ESL class period program

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In the class period ESL program, students can take their ESL classes as an elective or a language arts course. This way, they will not miss anything that is taught in their regular classrooms, and they will be given course credit for attending ESL classes at the end of the semester.

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ESL pullout program

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"Pull-out" ESL programs require students to leave their classrooms for a certain period of time once a day or week to attend an ESL class. Teachers may follow their own curriculum's or teach subjects that students learn in their regular classes. This type of program is usually used in schools that have limited teachers and classrooms.

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How to make academic content comprehensible for ELLS

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Use text and visuals to provide students with base knowledge they will need to continue learning. (ex. Showing students a computer based presentation that uses text and pictures to present key terms on a topic.)

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Culture shock

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Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move between social environments, or simply travel to another type of life.

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Use of adverbs of frequency

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Adverbs of frequency are often used to indicate routine or repeated activities, so they are often used with the present simple tense. If a sentence has only one verb, place the adverb of frequency in the middle of the sentence so that it is positioned after the subject but before the verb. For example: Tom never flies.

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Possessive pronouns

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a pronoun indicating possession, for example mine, yours, hers, theirs.

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Managing the needs of newly arrived ELLS from multilingual countries

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Assign a buddy. Don't assume the student automatically knows or understands. Culture shock is common

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Note taking

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Taking notes during a lesson to remember and understand content

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Group work

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Working together collaboratively

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Self monitoring

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Checking ones own comprehension and thinking about what one is learning

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Translation

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the process of translating words or text from one language into another.

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Summative assessments

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Summative assessments are used to evaluate student learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period—typically at the end of a project, unit, course, semester, program, or school year.

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Intonation patterns

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a unit of speech melody in a language or dialect that contributes to the total meaning of an utterance

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Alliteration

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The occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. Alliteration is a term that describes a literary stylistic device. Alliteration occurs when a series of words in a row (or close to a row) have the same first consonant sound. For example, "She sells sea-shells down by the sea-shore" or "Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers"

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Connected speech

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Connected speech, or connected discourse, in linguistics, is a continuous sequence of sounds forming utterances or conversations in spoken language.

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Differences in communication across cultures

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Ex. In some cultures it is considered more respectful to avoid eye contact. Be mindful of things like this.

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Incorporating appropriate pre-reading activities

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Can include the creation of graphic organizers to help ELLs contextualize and organize a text prior to reading. (ex. Making a timeline collaboratively of the civil war can help ELLs use information from their history class a a working reference to build on foundational knowledge before they begin reading.

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Presenting new content area vocabulary

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-Define words first ; then having students use the words in a different context to internalize the meanings and prepare them for encountering the words as they read

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Benefits of using a holistic approach on the basis of effective post reading strategies

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Typically focuses on how the parts of a whole relate to one another, incorporates integrated skills ; emphasizes connections across different academic disciplines. (Asking questions, eliciting responses, having discussions ; offering feedback to ELLS after they read each chapter will help facilitate a holistic understanding of the novel

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Holistic approach

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Holistic education is a philosophy of education based on the premise that each person finds identity, meaning, and purpose in life through connections to the community, to the natural world, and to humanitarian values such as compassion and peace.

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Phonetics

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the study and classification of speech sounds.

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Semantics

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the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text.

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Morphology

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the study of the forms of words.

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Syntax

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the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

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The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

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States that a language learners errors can be predicted by examining the similarities and differences between the language systems of the learners native language and target language

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Making informed decisions to differentiate assessment

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Checking formative (ongoing) assessments to determine individual student progress and accommodate all students learning needs

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Encouraging student confidence and motivation

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Offering feedback that is focused on the students effort that led to their success

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Cultural assimilation

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-Adopting the language and traditions of the new culture while identifying less with home culture Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group.

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Working with an ELL functioning at a beginning level of reading & writing in English

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Incorporate strategies that will help the student develop foundational literacy skills, such as phonics instruction, before moving on to more advanced skills. (ex. Matching pictures to basic words that share the same beginning, middle, or ending sounds)

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Assessing ELLS in their native language

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When assessing ELLs in their native language & L2, a teacher can determine language dominance & distinguish between matters of proficiency, giftedness & learning difficulties. Also ELLs may be underestimated academically if testing is not done in their native language

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Developmental stages in writing

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Students frequently pass through a stage where they approximate spellings of words based on the sounds they hear in the words. This is referred to as the phonetic stage. (ex. Squirrel="Squaro") This error is based on the students own (& not a native Englsih speakers) pronunciation of the word "squirrel."

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Norm referenced assessment

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A norm-referenced test (NRT) is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured.

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Standardized assessment

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Standardized assessment is a lens into the classroom. It sheds light on why a child might be struggling, succeeding, or accelerating on specific elements of their grade-level standards. Results from standardized tests help inform the next step in learning for our students. (ex. M-Step etc.)

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Working with ELLS with limited formal schooling

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Show newcomers expected appropriate behaviors through a series of specific activities that feature modeling. This way newcomers can become aware of their own behavior and work to change it. (ex. Student is having difficulty not socializing with their classmates during instruction. Integrating a variety of activities in which the teacher can model appropriate classroom behavior for ELLs )

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Total Physical Response

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Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University. It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement.

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Language experience approach

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The language experience approach (LEA) is a whole language approach that promotes reading and writing through the use of personal experiences and oral language. It can be used in tutorial or classroom settings with homogeneous or heterogeneous groups of learners.

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Grammar translation method

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The grammar translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native language.

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Suggestopedia

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Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. Suggestopedia was originally applied mainly in foreign language teaching, and it is often claimed that it can teach languages approximately three times as quickly as conventional methods.

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James Asher

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Total Physical Response- Total Physical Response Theory is a way of using movement in the teaching of language to allow students to react without having to do too much thinking. This theory proposes limiting the anxiety and stress of language learning for a student and as well hopes for retaining information long term

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Noam Chomsky

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Universal Grammar: proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain. It is sometimes known as 'mental grammar', and as opposed to other 'grammars', e.g. prescriptive, descriptive and pedagogical. The theory suggests that linguistic ability manifests itself without being taught (see the poverty of the stimulus argument), and that there are properties that all natural human languages share. It is a matter of observation and experimentation to determine precisely what abilities are innate and what properties are shared by all languages. Chomsky suggested that all humans are able to acquire language and specified this as the Language Acquisition Device, often abbreviated and referred to as LAD. Generative grammar was as well associated with Chomsky. This approach by Chomsky has been the center of theoretical linguistics and have since resulted in many different grammatical theories. This theory specifies that when learning and attaining language children need to be creating sentences using knowledge of the grammatical principles in their own native language instead of plainly memorizing words and sentences.

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Howard Gardner

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Theory of Multiple Intelligences- Harvard professor Howard Gardner has identified eight different types of intelligences that each individual has the capacity to possess. The idea of multiple intelligences is important because it allows for educators to identify differing strengths and weaknesses in students and also contradicts the idea that intelligence can be measured through IQ. Visual/Spatial - Involves visual perception of the environment, the ability to create and manipulate mental images, and the orientation of the body in space. Verbal/Linguistic - Involves reading, writing, speaking, and conversing in one's own or foreign languages. Logical/Mathematical - Involves number and computing skills, recognizing patterns and relationships, timeliness and order, and the ability to solve different kinds of problems through logic. Bodily/Kinesthetic - Involves physical coordination and dexterity, using fine and gross motor skills, and expressing oneself or learning through physical activities. Musical - Involves understanding and expressing oneself through music and rhythmic movements or dance, or composing, playing, or conducting music. Interpersonal - Involves understanding how to communicate with and understand other people and how to work collaboratively. Intrapersonal - Involves understanding one's inner world of emotions and thoughts, and growing in the ability to control them and work with them consciously. Naturalist - Involves understanding the natural world of plants and animals, noticing their characteristics, and categorizing them; it generally involves keen observation and the ability to classify other things as well.

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Creating a learning environment where ELLS can feel at ease

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Using small group work & pair work so ELLs can practice English without having to practice in front of the entire class. It helps to promote participation and reduce anxiety.

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Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

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Promotes discrimination on the basis of race, color, & national origin in programs and activities receiving federal funding assistance. A school receiving federal funding must ensure that ELLs are not discriminated against on the basis of race or national origin.

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Selecting appropriate, targeted literacy instruction based on individual student needs

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If a student is not receiving grade level texts at their level, a teacher can plan a series of lessons for Natasha that focus on sound-letter correspondence in English (ex. If a students native language does not use the roman alphabet)

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Expository writing with advanced ELLs

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Expository writing generally requires students to formulate a stance on a given topic and use their own ideas, backed by evidential support and analysis of a text, to complete an essay about it. Having ELLs analyze the effect of physical conditions on the characters in the novel is typical of this type of writing. (Ex. If a teacher wanted students to learn to express complex knowledge & thoughts in their essay, they could write an essay in which they would analyze the effects of the physical conditions on the characters & use evidence from the text to support their stance.)

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Assessing ELLS language proficiency

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If students were at the beginning level of reading proficiency in English, they would most likely have a reliance on visual cues & easily recognizable words to construct meaning.

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Serving as a resource for fellow school staff

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ELLs may lack appropriate language skills or be intimidated to ask questions. The ELL teacher could suggest that the general ed. teacher work to create a classroom environment where students feel safe and comfortable enough to participate. (ex. An ELL teacher could follow up with ELLs in one on one conferences to discuss points of possible confusion in a less intimidating setting.)

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Metalinguistic knowledge

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Awareness of the features and rules of a given language beyond simply being able to use them. Extrapolating a rule for adding plural endings to words requires metalinguistic knowledge.

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Antonyms

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a word opposite in meaning to another (e.g., bad and good ).

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Synonyms

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A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. (ex. Mean: Unfriendly, Unpleasant, Bad-tempered, Difficult)

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Homophones

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Two words that sound the same but are not spelled the same. These words typically carry meanings distinct from one another such as: who's/whose, sun/son ; feet/feat.

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Allophones

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(Phonetics ; Phonology) any of several speech sounds that are regarded as contextual or environmental variants of the same phoneme. In English the aspirated initial (p) in pot and the unaspirated (p) in spot are allophones of the phoneme /p/

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Internal validity

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Internal validity (IV) is the recognition that when it is associated with experimental research it refers both to how well the study was run (research design, operational definitions used, how variables were measured, what was/wasn't measured, etc.), and how confidently one can conclude that the change in the dependent variable was produced solely by the independent variable and not extraneous ones.

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Content validity

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Content validity, sometimes called logical or rational validity, is the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. For example, an educational test with strong content validity will represent the subjects actually taught to students, rather than asking unrelated questions.

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Predictive validity

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Refers to the extent to which a score on a assessment predicts future performance

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Consequential validity

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Messick (1989) originally introduced consequences to the validity argument. Later, Shepard (1993, 1997) broadened the definition by arguing one must investigate both positive/negative and intended/unintended consequences of score-based inferences to properly evaluate the validity of the assessment system.

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Language experience approach

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-Promotes literacy development through the use of students personal experiences. Typically, the teacher will ask students to talk about an event in their lives and transcribe their speech. The transcription can then be used as the basis for reading and writing activities) (ex. Having ELLs recount what happened during a recent school wide assembly as the teacher transcribes the story on the chalkboard.)

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Low context culture

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People from low-context cultures, typically rely on what is being said in a conversation to derive meaning instead of indirect statements or nonverbal means. Rule oriented, people play by external rules More knowledge is codified, public, external, and accessible. Sequencing, separation--of time, of space, of activities, of relationships More interpersonal connections of shorter duration Knowledge is more often transferable Task-centered. Decisions and activities focus around what needs to be done, division of responsibilities.

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Monochronic culture

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In a monochronic culture, people tend to place a high value on timeliness and schedules. They focus on the value of time, and therefore tend to have a very rigid interpretation of how to organize their schedules. Monochronic people generally prefer to do one thing at a time and to devote their full concentration to the task at hand, whether it be completing an assignment for work or school or having coffee with a friend. Cultures typically described as monochronic can be found in North America, Northern Europe, and parts of Asia.

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High context culture

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High-context cultures (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business transaction. Less verbally explicit communication, less written/formal information More internalized understandings of what is communicated Multiple cross-cutting ties and intersections with others Long term relationships Strong boundaries- who is accepted as belonging vs who is considered an "outsider" Knowledge is situational, relational. Decisions and activities focus around personal face-to-face relationships, often around a central person who has authority

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Polychronic culture

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Polychronic Cultures In a polychronic culture, people tend to focus more on what they are doing than the timeframe in which it is happening. They thrive at multitasking and are not bothered by phone calls or interruptions. They tend to build strong personal relationships, and often see the development of this relationship as their end goal rather than the task at hand. Cultures typically described as polychronic can be found in Latin America, Southern Europe and the Middle East.

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Elision

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In phonetics and phonology, elision is the omission of a sound (a phoneme) in speech. Elision is common in casual conversation. "Elision of sounds can . . . be seen clearly in contracted forms like isn't (is not), I'll (I shall/will), who's (who is/has), they'd (they had, they should, or they would), haven't (have not) and so on. We see from these examples that vowels or/and consonants can be elided.

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High ; low vowels

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The high vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with the jaw relatively high--that is, with the mouth nearly closed. 1. /i/ (the phoneme spelled ee in beet): high front vowel. 2. /I/ (the phoneme spelled i in bit): high front vowel. This vowel is articulated slightly lower and slightly further back than is the preceding vowel /i/. 3. /u/ (the phoneme spelled oo in food): high back vowel. 4. /U/ (the phoneme spelled u in put): high back vowel. This vowel is articulated slighter lower and slightly further forward than is the preceding vowel /u/. The low vowels of Present-Day English are the vowels that are articulated with the jaw relatively low --that is, with the mouth fully or almost fully open. 1. /æ/ (the phoneme spelled a in bat): low front vowel. 2. /a/ (the phoneme spelled a in father): low central vowel.

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Voiced ; unvoiced consonants

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(ex. Teacher says black eyes but student mistakenly hears black ice. [z] in 'eyes' as voiced ; [s] in 'ice' as unvoiced.

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Testing accommodations with ELLS

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Gives ELLs an equal opportunity to demonstrate their skills. Accommodations are typically put in place to reduce language barriers and subsequently give ELLs an equal opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge ; skills on a given topic.

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Selecting appropriate learning objectives for content based instruction

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-Content based instruction typically focuses on academic subject matter. In addition, it promotes students to use the target language to learn about a given topic ; does not incorporate explicit language instruction. (Ex. A learning objective for a lesson that uses content-based instruction could be: Having students work in groups to answer a list of questions about the American Revolution by completing an online scavenger hunt)

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Stages of language development

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1. Prelinguistic Stage 0;0 to 1;0 Onset of speech perception Cooing in first months Onset of Babbling around 0;6 Prepares the child to understand and acquire words 2. Single Word Stage 1;0-1;6 Onset of words around 1;0 Mostly object-like words initially Holophrases: single words with meaning of a sentence Slow acquisition of approximately 50 words 3. Early Sentence Stage 1;6 to 2;0 Word Spurt: sudden increase in word acquisition Onset of multiwords utterances, e.g. "mommy sock" Telegraphic stage Stages of vocabulary: substance ; action ; relation-attribute 4. Short Sentence Stage 2;0-2;6 Onset of grammatical development Onset of inflections, e.g plural, past tense Onset of grammatical structure, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries Stable ratio (Nice) 5. Complete Sentence Stage 2;6-6;0 Advanced grammatical development Onset of subordinate clauses, e.g. relative clauses, complement clauses, adverbial clauses Completion of basic grammar by 6;0 6. School Age 6;0 - Infrequent complex aspects of grammar Reading ; writing Expansion of constructions through reformulations Reformulation: repeating meaning with a change in structure

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Silent period

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New arrivals tend to go through a period of silence, which could last days, weeks or even months. It is important to give students time to observe and adjust to their new environment.

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Cross cultural differences in chronemics

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Chronemics refers to the way that different cultures perceive time. (ex. Becoming upset with someone when they show up late somewhere. Person does not view lateness as being rude.)

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Using different strategies to facilitate content area learning

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Ex. Using manipulatives in a lesson to help students learn and understand a concept in math.

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Incorporating state and/or national standards into instructional planning

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-It is important that teachers incorporate standards for both language ; content area subjects into the learning objectives for ESL students. -Language standards will dictate the matter and presentation of content area materials, thereby fulfilling the ESL teachers duty of advancing ELLs language proficiency without comprising content area learning.

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Graphic organizer

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A graphic organizer is a visual display that demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts or ideas. A graphic organizer guides the learner's thinking as they fill in and build upon a visual map or diagram.

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Word wall

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A word wall is an ongoing, organized display of key words that provides visual reference for students throughout a unit of study or a term. These words are used continually by teachers and students during a variety of activities.

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Environmental print

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Defined as print that students are exposed to in their everyday lives. (ex. brand names, street signs, popular products, packaging on foods etc.)

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Word web

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-Like a bubble map. -Word in the middle and similar words branching off. (ex. Happy (in middle): joyful, jolly, thrilled, pleased, delighted [branching off but connected to the middle word 'happy'])

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Developing pre-literacy skills

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-Pre-literacy serves as a foundation for reading and writing & includes phonological awareness & knowledge of letters. -ex. Interactive boards game that focuses on sound/letter relationships in English

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Jim Cummins

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BICS & CALP (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills & Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency)

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BICS

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Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (Social language)

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CALP

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Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (Academic language)

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Natural Order Hypothesis

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Stephen Krashen- This hypothesis states that grammatical structures are learned in a predictable order (Romeo). Krashen also claims that this can only happen if the subject is given input they can comprehend, and if anxiety levels are low.

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Zone of Proximal Development

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The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept introduced, yet not fully developed, by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) during the last ten years of his life.

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L.S. Vygotsky

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ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)

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Output Hypothesis

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-Merrill Swain -The output hypothesis states that language learners will pay attention to phrases when they can attach meaning to them. The act of speaking or writing under certain conditions makes up the process of second language learning. Speaking the language is different than understanding the language. 3 Functions- -1. Noticing functions: The learner realizes what they do not know or only partially know. They know what they want to say but are unable to communicate it. This is done through practice, verbally communicating in the second language in the classroom. 2. Hypothesis-testing function: It is when the learner provides statement realizing that the grammar is not always correct and they receive feedback in order to improve. This enables the learner to reformulate their statements. Interaction within the classroom with teacher and peers can assist the learner to improve their grammar. 3. Metalinguistic function: The learner reflects upon the language learned and this enables them to control their output and internalize their linguistic knowledge. After the first two functions, the student should be able to internally reflect on what they have learned.

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Merrill Swain

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-Output Hypothesis -Merrill Swain is a professor emerita of second-language education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto.[1] She developed the output hypothesis, a theory of second-language acquisition which states that learners cannot reach full grammatical competence in a language from input processing alone, but must also produce spoken language output.

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Degree of Contextualization & it's cognitive demand on students

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Drawing and labeling pictures with the assistance of a vocabulary notebook and a partner is best described as a context embedded/cognitively undemanding task. This is because students have visual support through drawing (which provides context) ; they have the assistance of both a partner ; their science notebooks to complete the task (Which reduces cognitive demand).

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Classroom practices appropraiate for a specific learner population

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-For ELL students with limited formal schooling, teachers could incorporate visually rich classrooms and a focus on familiar experiences. -Students with limited formal schooling will likely benefit from instruction that draws on familiar experiences ; engages them visually since they are likely to have relatively limited literacy skills. The aim in the limited formal schooling classroom should be to make the students feel comfortable with formal educational settings.

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Number agreement

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-agreement in number between words in the same grammatical construction (e.g., between adjectives and the nouns they modify) (ex. That apple on the table is fresh. Those two apples on the table are fresh. The number of apples is marked on the noun—"apple" singular number (one item) vs. "apples" plural number (more than one item)—on the demonstrative, "that/those", and on the verb, "is/are". In the second sentence, all this information is redundant, since quantity is already indicated by the numeral "two".)

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Prepositions

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a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause, as in "the man on the platform," "she arrived after dinner," "what did you do it for ?"

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Sociolinguisitics aspects of language

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The nature of the relationship that exists between interlocutors is among the factors that contribute to variations in linguistic register. (ex. formal/informal register when speaking to someone)

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Conjugation

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Conjugated verbs are verbs which have been changed to communicate one or more of the following: person, number, gender, tense, aspect, mood, or voice. Those will be explained in detail in just a moment: but first, here's an example of the verb "break" conjugated in several different ways. Present Simple I, You, We, They: break He, She, It: breaks Present Continuous (Progressive) I: am breaking You, We, They: are breaking He, She, It: is breaking Present Perfect I, You, We, They: have broken He, She, It: has broken Past Simple I, You, We, They, He, She, It: broke Past Continuous I, He, She, It: was breaking You, We, They: were breaking Past Perfect I, You, We, They, He, She, It: had broken As you can see, each different conjugation changes "break" from its base form to tell us when and by whom the action takes place.

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Tone

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a musical or vocal sound with reference to its pitch, quality, and strength.

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Syntax

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the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

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Effectively collaborating with content area teachers

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First step is to establish a common goal & then plan instruction to meet that goal.

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Rubrics

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Provide students with descriptive criteria for a given assignment

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Accurate evaluation

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Giving a certain score correctly based on how well as student performed on an assignment

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Primary advantage of using rubrics with ELLS

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By receiving a rubric before beginning an assignment, the ELLs are able to have a clear idea of what is expected of them & how they will be graded

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Intrinsic & Extrinsic motivation

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Extrinsic motivation occurs when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. Examples of behaviors that are the result of extrinsic motivation include: Studying because you want to get a good grade Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents Participating in a sport to win awards Competing in a contest to win a scholarship In each of these examples, the behavior is motivated by a desire to gain a reward or avoid an adverse outcome. Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in behavior because it is personally rewarding; essentially, performing an activity for its own sake rather than the desire for some external reward. Examples of actions that are the result of intrinsic motivation include:

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Publications in the field of ELL teaching

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-Professional journals in the field of ELL teaching -ex. TESOL Quarterly

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TESOL Quarterly

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-Dedicated to disseminating research on topics of interest to individuals in the field of ELL teaching -Reports current research related to teaching English to speakers of other languages in the US & abroad

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Selecting appropriate assessment for a specific purpose

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When simultaneously assessing reading comprehension & oral language skills, a teacher could use retelling. Retelling is an activity where the teacher elicits a description of a given text from the students who can explain what happened in their own words. Other types of assessment could be: 1. Written essay 2. Picture describing task 3. Interview

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Common stress patterns & intonation in speech

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(ex. 'Creative', a native english speaker would place the greatest emphasis on the second syllable of the word 'creative'.)

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Helping ELLS become more autonomous learners

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Modeling cognitive strategies for ELLs so they can employ on their own helps them understand how to learn. A think-aloud that demonstrates how to analyze and interpret an academic text best exemplifies this concept. (ex. Modeling think-alouds to demonstrate to students how to analyze and interpret an academic text.)

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Appropriate testing modifications for ELLS

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(ex. ELLs are expected to fill in the blanks on an assignment. A modification for intermediate level ELLs could be adding a word bank with visual reference for the ELLs. This will modify the assessment to make it accessible to ELLs at the intermediate level of ELL proficiency while still maintaining the content that the assessment intends to cover.

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Responding to cultural misunderstandings in an ELL classroom

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(ex. feet pointed being a sign of disrespect. Teacher could have a class discussion about what is considered appropriate & inappropriate behavior in the students home culture.) -By doing so, the students can familiarize themselves with each others backgrounds & avoid misunderstandings in the future.

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Passive voice

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A sentence is passive when the subject is acted upon by an agent that may or may not be named. (ex. The dinner is being prepared.) 'Dinner' is being acted on by an unnamed agent.

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Cultural bias in tests

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Ex. Having snow in the directions. Students might be from a warm sunny places and have never seen snow. This is bias and not fair. Students may lack cultural knowledge to answer this question.

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Negative transfer

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Influence of mother tongue knowledge when learning English. (Could be a bad influence in learning the L2)

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How to align national, state and local standards

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The first step would be to locate areas of overlap among national, state and local standard to produce and accurate alignment

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Circumlocation

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1. The use of unnecessarily wordy language, especially in being vague or evasive. 2. A roundabout or evasive expression: Circumlocutions like "go to the bathroom" are often used in place of words that are considered vulgar or indelicate.

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Coordinate bilingualism

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Defined as learning L1 & L2 in separate contexts

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Compound bilingualism

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A compound bilingual is an individual who learns two languages in the same environment so that he/she acquires one notion with two verbal expressions.

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Vertical bilingualism

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Where a dialect in used in conjunction with another language, also known as diglossia.

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Receptive bilingualism

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An individual who begins to feel some difficulty who feels is loosing the proficiency of L2 because of lack of use.

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Minimal pairs

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-In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language that differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme, toneme or chroneme, and have distinct meanings. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language. -Helps to distinguish between sounds in English

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Implementing a pre-reading strategy to help activate prior knowledge

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-By asking students to write about & discuss their experiences with the key theme of the story before reading, the teacher is activating prior knowledge about that topic. -ex. Class is reading a story about a bird that wants to be a fish. Teacher can ask students to write a short description in their response journals of something that they have wished for & then discussing their responses as a class

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Transferring literacy skills from L1 to L2

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Implementing pre-reading strategies from the ELLs L1 will effectively help ELLs contextualize & understand a new text that they are beginning to read in the L2 by scaffolding from the ELLs existing knowledge base of L1 literacy.

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Scaffolding in a ELL classroom

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-Goal is to give students the assistance they need to successfully complete a task that would be too difficult for them to complete on their own, while gradually decreasing the assistance as students achieve mastery. -ex. Providing ELLs with sentence starters (Helps students to not have to generate all of the language on their own)

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How to apply appropriate corrective feedback to ELLS during an informal classroom discussion

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-Given the proficiency level of the ELLs & the context of the lesson, recasting or repeating the corrected form of a speakers error, offers the ELLs a model while not obstructing communication. -ex. Restating sentences with errors correctly to provide a model for ELLs

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Manipulatives

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In mathematics, a manipulative is an object which is designed so that a learner can perceive some mathematical concept by manipulating it, hence its name. The use of manipulatives provides a way for children to learn concepts in a developmentally appropriate, hands-on and an experiencing way.

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Realia

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objects and material from everyday life, especially when used as teaching aids.

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Portfolios

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A portfolio is a compilation of student work assembled for the purpose of (1) evaluating coursework quality and academic achievement, (2) creating a lasting archive of academic work products, and (3) determining whether students have met learning standards or academic requirements for courses, grade-level promotion, and graduation. Advocates of student portfolios argue that compiling, reviewing, and evaluating student work over time can provide a richer and more accurate picture of what students have learned and are able to do than more traditional measures, such as standardized tests or final exams, that reflect only what a student knows at a specific point in time.

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Graphic organizers

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A graphic organizer, also known as knowledge map, concept map, story map, cognitive organizer, advance organizer, or concept diagram, is a communication tool that uses visual symbols to express knowledge, concepts, thoughts, or ideas, and the relationships between them. (makes content comprehensible)

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Audio lingual method

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-Based on the notion that language is best learned through a reinforcement of targeted language forms. Having students listen to and repeat a dialogue in a practice drill is indicative of this method. -ex. ELLs listen to a recording of two native english speakers, teacher replays it and stops after each line in the dialogue so ELLs can repeat it in unison.

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Community language learning

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Community language learning (CLL) is language-teaching method in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. It is based on the Counseling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator.

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Communicative language teaching

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Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study.

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Improving ELLS writing skills

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-ELLs benefit from becoming more familiar with specialized formats , a type of writing to which they would not necessarily have been exposed to in other instructional settings. -ex. ELLs lack of writing skills is impeding their ability to describe the lab and it's outcomes in lab reports. Teacher could model the correct format ; content of a lab report for ELL students

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Portfolio assessment

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Portfolio assessment is an evaluation tool used to document student learning through a series of student-developed artifacts. Considered a form of authentic assessment, it offers an alternative or an addition to traditional methods of grading and high stakes exams.

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Peer assessment

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Peer assessment, or self-assessment, is a process whereby students or their peers grade assignments or tests based on a teacher's benchmarks. The practice is employed to save teachers time and improve students' understanding of course materials as well as improve their metacognitive skills.

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Proficiency assessment

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Proficiency-based learning refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic reporting that are based on students demonstrating that they have learned the knowledge and skills they are expected to learn as they progress through their education.

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Diagnostic assessment

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Diagnostic assessment is an essential device in a teacher's "tool kit". It can be used to diagnose strengths and areas of need in all students. Diagnostic assessment involves the gathering and careful evaluation of detailed data using students' knowledge and skills in a given learning area.

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Selecting appropriate materials to support content area instruction

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-Comprehensible input refers to language input that ELLs can understand but that also falls slightly above their current proficiency level. -ex. labeled fruits and vegetables for a lesson on healthy diets to make input comprehensible (Makes lessons new vocab. easier to understand)

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Voiced Consonants

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Voiced consonants make sound using the vibration of your vocal folds in your larynx - the "voice box". You can tell if a consonant is voiced in a couple of ways: 1. Put your finger on your throat when you say it. If you feel vibration, it is voiced. 2. Put your fingers in your ears when you say it. If you can still "hear" the consonant through the vibrations in your neck and head, it is voiced. Voiced consonants in English: /b/ as in ball /d/ as in dog

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External Validity

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The extent to which a study's results (regardless of whether the study is descriptive or experimental) can be generalized/applied to other people or settings reflects its external validity.

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/? /

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uh: cUp, lUck

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/??/

answer

ah: Arm, fAther

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/æ/

answer

short a: cAt, blAck

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/?/

answer

uh: Away, cinEmA

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/e/

answer

short e: mEt, bEd

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/???/

answer

er: tURn, lEARn

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/?/

answer

short i: hIt, sIttIng

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/i:/

answer

long e: sEE, hEAt

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/?/

answer

short o: hOt, rOck

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/??/

answer

nOrth, fOrce, fOUr

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/?/

answer

short u: pUt, cOUld

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/u:/

answer

long u: blUE, fOOd

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/??/

answer

long i: fIve, EYE

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/??/

answer

nOW, OUt

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/o?/ or /??/

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long o: gO, hOme

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/e??/

answer

whERE,AIR

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/e?/

answer

long a: sAY, EIGHt

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/???/

answer

nEAR, hERE

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/o?/

answer

bOY, jOIn

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/???/

answer

pURE, tOURist

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/b/

answer

Bad, laB

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/d/

answer

DiD, laDy

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/f/

answer

Find, iF

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/g/

answer

Give, flaG

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/h/

answer

How, Hello

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/j/

answer

Yes, Yellow

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/k/

answer

Cat, baCK

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/l/

answer

Leg, LittLE

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/m/

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Man, leMon

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/n/

answer

No, teN

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/?/

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siNG, fiNGer

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/p/

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Pet, maP

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/r/

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Red, tRy

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/s/

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Sun, miSS

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/?/

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SHe, craSH

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/t/

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Tea, geTTing

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/t?/

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CHeck, CHurCH

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/?/

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THink, boTH

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/ð/

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THis, moTHer

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/v/

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Voice, fiVe

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/w/

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Wet, WindoW

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/z/

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Zoo, laZy

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/?/

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pleaSure, viSion

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/d?/

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Just, larGE

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Phonemes & Graphemes

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Phonemes are speech sounds made by the mouth, like the /p/ sound in /spoon/. Understanding that phonemes are the building blocks of spoken words is called phonemic awareness. GRAPHEMES are individual letters and groups of letters that represent single phonemes, like the "s" and the "oo" in "spoon". Understanding how letters are used to encode speech sounds in written language is crucial in learning to decode unfamiliar words. ex. (s-p-oo-n)

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Concept of Onomatopoeia

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Onomatopoeia is the use of words (such as hiss or murmur) that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to. ex. "Chug, chug, chug. Puff, puff, puff. Ding-dong, ding-dong. The little train rumbled over the tracks." ("Watty Piper" [Arnold Munk], The Little Engine That Could, 1930)

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Critical Period Hypothesis

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States that there is a period of time in childhood when languages can be easily acquired. According to the hypothesis, language becomes increasingly more difficult to learn after puberty begins.

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The Direct Method

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The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language.

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Notional-functional approach

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The notional-functional approach in ESL is a way of structuring a syllabus around "notions," real-life situations in which people communicate, which are further broken down into "functions," specific aims of communication.

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Individualist cultures

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More likely to regard personal ambition and initiative favorably

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Subtractive bilingualism

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Is most likely to occur in second language learners who have little opportunity to continue using their first language

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Brown vs. Board of Education

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On May 17, 1954, the Court unanimously ruled that "separate but equal" public schools for blacks and whites were unconstitutional. The Brown case served as a catalyst for the modern civil rights movement, inspiring education reform everywhere and forming the legal means of challenging segregation in all areas of society.

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Plyler v. Doe

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In 1982, the Supreme Court rules in Plyler v. Doe , 457 U.S. 202 (1982), that public schools were prohibited from denying immigrant students access to a public education. The Court stated that undocumented children have the same right to a free public education as U.S. citizens and permanent residents. Undocumented immigrant students are obligated, as are all other students, to attend school until they reach the age mandated by state law.

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Castaneda v. Pickard

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District implemented programs for ELLS must be evaluated for effectiveness

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Which of the following aspects of language tends to change more rapidly and significantly over time?

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The meaning of lexical items used in oral discourse

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Acculturation

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-is the process of taking on ANOTHER group's culture Acculturation is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group. Although acculturation is usually in the direction of a minority group adopting habits and language patterns of the dominant group, acculturation can be reciprocal—that is, the dominant group also adopts patterns typical of the minority group. Acculturation may be evidenced by changes in language preference, adoption of common attitudes and values, membership in common social groups and institutions, and loss of separate political or ethnic identification.

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Enculturation

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"Enculturation" is the process of learning your own group's culture, and "enculturate" is a transitive verb. So, when an American mother teaches her child to use a fork, she is enculturating him

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Assimilation

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Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group.

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Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964

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-Needs to provide ELL students with equal opportunities -It prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, and national origin in programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance

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Purpose of an ARD

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-Stands for Admissions, Review, Dismissal -It is an IEP (Individual education plan) that protects spec. ed & ELL students & entitles them to the same quality of education as other students. -Committee of teachers, parents, counselors etc. working with the student -Must be followed by all teachers in that child's education

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Predicate adjectives

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A predicate adjective modifies the subject of the sentence, and is connected to the subject by a linking verb. In the sentence "The wall is purple," the subject is "wall," the predicate adjective is "purple" and the linking verb is "is." ex. Children grow older every day. The baby remains happy during her bath. Her lasagna smells scrumptious. Andy's sports car is Italian. Bosses can be demanding.

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Predicate nominatives

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Predicate nominative is the traditional term for a noun, pronoun, or other nominal that follows a linking verb (usually a form of the verb be). ex. "Cats, snakes and owls are 'natural enemies' of mice."

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Preposition

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a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause, as in "the man on the platform," "she arrived after dinner," "what did you do it for ?"

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Top down

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Whole language is considered a "top down" approach where the reader constructs a personal meaning for a text based on using their prior knowledge to interpret the meaning of what they are reading. Problems associated with whole language include a lack of structure that has been traditionally supplied by the scope and sequence, lessons and activities, and extensive graded literature found in basal readers.

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Bottom Up

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Phonics is considered a "bottom up" approach where students "decode" the meaning of a text. The advantage of phonics, especially for students who come to schools with large vocabularies, is that once students get the basics down, they can go to the library and read a wide variety of children's literature.

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Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis

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Examines how language acquisition & language learning are related. Krashen sees acquisition as the utterance initiator, while learning is the monitor/editor. The monitor plans, edits and corrects language acts when the ELL is not rushed.

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Separate Underlying Proficiency

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According to the (SUP) No relationship between L1 & L2 language acquisition exists, because each language is retained by a distinct area of the brain that is in no way connected to an area reserved for another language. Currently this theory is generally disregarded.

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Language Acquisition Stages

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1. Preproduction, Characteristics The student Has minimal comprehension. Does not verbalize. Nods "Yes" and "No." Draws and points. Approximate Time Frame0-6 months Teacher Prompts Show me ... Circle the ... Where is ...? Who has ...? 2. Early Production, Characteristics The student Has limited comprehension Produces one- or two-word responses. Uses key words and familiar phrases. Uses present-tense verbs. Time Frame 6 months-1 year Teacher Prompts Yes/no questions Either/or questions Who ...? What ...? How many ...? 3. Speech Emergence, Characteristics The student Has good comprehension. Can produce simple sentences. Makes grammar and pronunciation errors. Frequently misunderstands jokes. Time Frame 1-3 years Teacher Prompts Why ...? How ...? Explain ... Questions requiring phrase or short-sentence answers 4. Intermediate Fluency, Characteristics The student Has excellent comprehension. Makes few grammatical errors. Time Frame 3-5 years Teacher Prompts What would happen if ...? Why do you think ...? Questions requiring more than a sentence response 5. Advanced Fluency Characteristics The student has a near-native level of speech. Time Frame 5-7 years Teacher Prompts Decide if ... Retell ...

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Speech Emergence Stage

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Characteristics The student Has good comprehension. Can produce simple sentences. Makes grammar and pronunciation errors. Frequently misunderstands jokes. Time Frame 1-3 years Teacher Prompts Why ...? How ...? Explain ... Questions requiring phrase or short-sentence answers

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Intermediate Proficiency Stage

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Characteristics The student Has excellent comprehension. Makes few grammatical errors. Time Frame 3-5 years Teacher Prompts What would happen if ...? Why do you think ...? Questions requiring more than a sentence response

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Early Production Stage

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2. Early Production, Characteristics The student Has limited comprehension Produces one- or two-word responses. Uses key words and familiar phrases. Uses present-tense verbs. Time Frame 6 months-1 year Teacher Prompts Yes/no questions Either/or questions Who ...? What ...? How many ...?

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SDAIE Approach

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is a teaching approach intended for teaching various academic content (such as social studies, science or literature) using the English language to students who are still learning English. SDAIE requires the student possess intermediate fluency in English as well as mastery of their native language. The instruction is carefully prepared so the student can access the English language content supported by material in their primary language and carefully planned instruction that strives for comprehensible input. SDAIE is a method of teaching students in English in such a manner that they gain skills in both the subject material and in using English.

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Pragmatics

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Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.

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Socio Linguistics

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Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society.

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BSM

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The Bilingual Syntax measure is a tool designed to assess bilingual students for both native and L2 (english) proficiency

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Students Syntactic Understanding

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ex. Teacher wants students to understand different types of syntactical arrangements (grammatical structures) that are not allowed. ex. 'The quickly telephone quickly ; lonely.'

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Content Based ESL Curriculum

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This approach encourages ESL instruction to reach beyond a simply serviceable program of study in oder to offer instruction that focuses on content rather than the rules of a language so that ELLS are becoming simultaneously more linguistically proficient and academically proficient.

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Communicative Competence

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Ability to use the elements of language (syntax, phonology, morphology, semantics) together with an understanding of social expectations and to use spoken messages that are appropriate in terms of how they are manifested and when, in the course or conversation they are used.

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RPTE (Reading Proficiency Tests in English)

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USed for LEP students i grades 3rd-12th

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Criticism in Woodcock-Munoz Language Survey, Language assessment scales-oral, IDEA proficiency test

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These tests do not accurately reflect native speakers proficiency and therefore cannot accurately reflect non-native speakers proficiency.

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Age equivalent score

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Norm referenced assessment to determine whether a student is working at, above or below a level similar to their peers by studying the average age of others who got the same score as they did

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Characteristics of an additive educational program

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-Program that uses students culture of origin as a scaffold to teach them about their new culture -Supports and celebrates bicultural identity & encourages acculturation, rather than assimilation

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L2 development can be hindered by ....

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Idiomatic expressions, vocabulary words that have multiple meanings & carrying grammatical rules, vocabulary and pronunciation from L1 & applying them to the L2

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Difference between ESL & Bilingual models

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ESL models are English only and employ a specific methodology to teach English & continue the L1. Bilingual models introduce instruction concepts in L1 and over time transfer them to English.

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