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John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

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An English philosopher and economist, and also feminist and civil servant. Famous for his work on "Utilitarianism" and also "On Liberty". His father was a

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Essay: "Utilitarianism"

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John Stuart Mill's most famous essays written in 1861. The essay advocates a more complex version of utilitarianism that takes into account the many arguments, misconceptions, and criticisms many people have about the view of morality many have. The essay draws upon the influence of both Mill's father and Jeremy Bentham. Not individual, but for the best state of the world. AKA the Greatest Happiness Principle

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Utilitarianism

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A theory based on the principle that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness, where happiness is pleasure and the absence of pain. A form of consequentialism.

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Chapter 1: General Remarks

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An introduction to the essay.

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Argument: Previous moral claims made by thinkers are unfounded as they are not based on a defined "first principle".

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There does, however, exist some standard that serves as a solid, if unrecognized, foundation (of morals). Could this be the moral instinct?

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Argument: People have been unable to come to any consensus on what principles the notions of "right" and "wrong" are based on.

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There needs to be a foundation for these morals to provide legitimacy to their views; a set of "first principles" must be created. Utilitarianism is already implicitly used as a standard and it fulfils the requirements of being a first principle.

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Point: The purpose of morality is to bring about a particular state of the world.

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Utilitarianism is one framework through which to understand morality. It is consequences-based; consequentialism.

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The first principle (according to Mill)

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The "concept of utility".

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Chapter 2: What Utilitarianism Is

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The definition of utilitarianism and some misconceptions.

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Criticism/Misconception 1: People misunderstand utilitarianism by interpreting utility as in opposition to pleasure.

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Utility is actually defined as pleasure itself, and the absence of pain. Pleasure and happiness in the absence of pain are the only things inherently "good".

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Criticism/Misconception 2: It is base and demeaning to reduce the meaning of life to pleasure.

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Human pleasures are far more superior to animalistic ones, , even though there are some "base" pleasures. Utilitarianism takes into account both the quality and quantity of pleasure that results from an action.

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Question: How do we distinguish upon higher- and lower-quality pleasures?

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A pleasure is of higher quality if people would choose it over a different pleasure even if it is accompanied by discomfort, an d if they would not trade it for a greater amount of the other pleasure. People who employ higher faculties are often less content because they have a deeper sense of the limitations of the world, however would never give up these higher pleasures for lower ones out of dignity. "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied"

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Argument: Pursuing one's own happiness at the expense of social happiness would not be moral under this framework.

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This is as Utilitarianism aims to maximise the total amount of utility in the world.

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Question: If we can distinguish between higher and lower pleasures, is there another standard of measurement other than mere pleasure?

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Left unanswered. Appreciation maybe?

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Criticism/Misconception 3: Happiness couldn't be the rational aim of human life because it is unattainable.

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Happiness, when defined as moments of rapture occurring in a life troubled by few pains, is indeed possible, and would be possible for almost everybody if educational and social arrangements were different. Major sources of unhappiness: selfishness and a lack of mental cultivation.

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Criticism/Misconception 4: The most virtuous people in history are those who have renounced happiness.

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This is true, however such martyrs who sacrifice happiness do it for the greater end; this being the greater happiness of other people. The willingness to sacrifice one's happiness for that of others is the highest virtue (behaviour showing high moral standards).

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Point: Utilitarianism is not concerned with the motives behind an action, but rather the morality of an action depends on the goodness of its result only.

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It is therefore a consequentialist view.

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Criticism/Misconception 5: Utilitarianism leaves people cold and unsympathising as it is concerned solely with the consequences of people's actions, and not on the individuals as moral or immoral themselves.

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All ethical standards judge actions in themselves, without considering the morality of those who performed then. We should also cultivate other desirable beauties of character, but it is preferable when unknown (in terms of order of priorities) to err on the side of moral thinking.

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Criticism/Misconception 6: Utilitarianism is often called a godless doctrine because its moral foundation is the human happiness and not the will of God.

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Depends on what we deem the moral character of God; for if God desires the happiness of all His creatures, then utilitarianism is more religious than any other doctrine. Therefore it is compatible.

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Criticism/Misconception 7: Utilitarianism is often conflated with Expediency, and therefore considered immoral.

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If expediency means to act against what is right for the sake of personal interest or short-term goals, than expediency is harmful and would act against society's interests (therefore being an enemy of morality).

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Criticism/Misconception 8: Prior to taking action, there is often not enough time to weigh its effects on general utility.

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We have had the entire history of human existence within which to learn the tendencies of actions to lead to particular results.

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Criticism/Misconception 9: Utilitarianism is criticized as too allowing, as underestimating the immoral tendencies of human nature.

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The need for exceptions is a part of the reality of human life.

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Chapter 3: Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility

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A discussion about the ultimate sanctions (or rewards) that utilitarianism can offer.

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Central Point: A philosophy cannot be binding if it does not contain inherent consequences for those who break its rules.

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Therefore utilitarianism has or can impose all the sanctions that other moral systems can, for it to be binding. Utilitarianism's sanctions are based on natural human sentiments, which the proper system of education could nurture.

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Point: What is a true fact of human nature is the inclination to work together socially, to share in each other's endeavors.

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Anything that contradicts this goes against our human nature, and this would find this out under deep reflection. You have to feel like it is a good thing to promote it (and be bound to promoting it).

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Criticism/Misconception 1: Could people have a logical or intellectual reason to do something even if his sentiments did not support doing so?

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Mill says that this is impossible, but maybe this is so?

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Criticism/Misconception 2: Can moral principles hold sway in society without the kind of enforcement mechanism Mill believes is required (education/law)?

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Left unanswered.

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Chapter 4: Of what sort of Proof the Principle of Utility is Susceptible

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Methods for proving the validity of utilitarianism.

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Point: It is not possible to prove any first principles by reasoning.

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Something is only desirable if people actually desire it; people desire their own happiness, therefore happiness is desirable.

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Point: Their are different components to happiness, such as virtue.

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People love virtue as it is a component of happiness.

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Point: Impartial reflection will show that desiring something is the same thing as thinking it is pleasant.

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N/A

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Is Mill advocating a certain worldview?

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Or is he merely observing how humans view the world (psychology)?

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Chapter 5: On the Connection between Justice and Utility

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The connection between justice and utility, and how happiness is the foundation of justice.

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Central Point: One of the biggest barriers to the acceptance of utility has been that it does not allow for a theory of justice.

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The justice or injustice of an action is something intrinsic and distinct from questions of utility. Mill is essentially separating the two concepts.

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A list of unjust or just things (according to Mill)

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Just: -For a person to have something they deserve (if they do something right) -Equality Unjust: -Deprive someone of their legal rights (*Laws cannot be the ultimate standard of justice, due to bad laws) -Depriving someone of something he has a moral right to possess -For a person to obtain something they don't deserve -To violate an agreement with someone or disappoint expectations that one knowingly nurtured -To show favoritism and preference in inappropriate circumstances

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Point: Justice corresponds with the idea of perfect obligation

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Perfect obligation: those that a person may demand of another Imperfect obligation: those that no one person has the right to require of another

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Point: It is a moral right to seek restitution

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This is as a person has had their moral right infringed upon.

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Point: People can be upset by an injustice if it goes against the interests of society at large, nut just themself, demonstrating a moral concern.

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A moral component of justice.

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Point: A right means that a person has a valid claim on society to protect him in the possession of that right.

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This is due to general utility. (+Animalistic need for retaliation) Security is key. The preservation of justice preserves peace among human beings.

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Justice

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Justice is the name for certain social utilities that are more important than any other kind, and thus should be preserved by a feeling that is different in kind from others. Justice is grounded on utility. (?)

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