phil 201 test 2 – Flashcards
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Laws of Logic
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The foundation of all reasoning. If they are not accepted as true, then nothing we say or reason makes any sense. These laws are undeniable.
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The Law of Non-Contradiction
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Something cannot be and not be at the same time and in the same respect. ~(P&~P)
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The Law of Excluded Middle
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Something either is or is not. Pv~P
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The Law of Identity
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Something is what it is. P=P
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Undeniable
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cannot be meaningfully denied because you would have to use the laws of logic to deny them. Anything that can't be meaningfully denied must be
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Premises
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Reasons
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Conclusion
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Belief that one is trying to support
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Inference
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the relationship between the premises and conclusion
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Validity
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refers to the structure of an argument; an argument is considered valid if the conclusion follows from the premises; it is invalid if the conclusion does not follow (non-sequitur)
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non-sequitur
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Latin for "it does not follow." When one statement isn't logically connected to another
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Truth Value
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refers to the quality of the propositions in the argument; arguments are valid or invalid but propositions are true or false
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Sound
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if it is both valid and the premises are true; an argument may be valid and unsound but it can never be invalid and sound; an argument is unsound if it is either invalid or one or more of the premises are false
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Deduction
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form of logic made up of arguments where (if valid) the conclusion follows necessary from or is guaranteed by the premises; if we assume the premises are true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. Deductive arguments usually reason from the general to the particular
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Syllogism
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the formal procedure for writing out a deductive argument
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Categorical proposition
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a proposition that affirms or denies something in terms of two categories: subject and predicate
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Disjunctive proposition
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a proposition which affirms or denies something in terms of two alternants, in the form of an "either/or" statement
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Alternant
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the alternatives in a disjunctive syllogism
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Hypothetical proposition
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a conditional statement that affirms or denies something in terms of an antecedent (usually expressed as "if") and a consequent (usually expressed as "then").
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Pure Hypothetical Syllogism
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uses only hypothetical propositions for the 2 premises and conclusion: If you do the work, then you will pass the course. If you pass the course, then you will graduate. If you do the work, then you will graduate.
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Mixed Hypothetical Syllogism
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employs a hypothetical proposition for the first premise but then uses categorical propositions for the second premise and the conclusion
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Modus Ponens
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the second premise affirms that the antecedent of the hypothetical is true If you do the work, then you will pass the course. You did the work. You passed the course.
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Modus Tollens
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the second premise denies the consequent of the hypothetical proposition If you do the work, then you will pass the course. You did not pass the course. You did not do the work.
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Denying the antecedent
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If you do the work, then you will pass the course. You did not do the work. You did not pass the course
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Affirming the consequent
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If you do the work, then you will pass the course. You passed the course. You did the work.
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Rules of valid inference
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deductive fallacies occur when one breaks one of the rules of valid inference
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Induction
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Inductive logic is made up of arguments which can lead only to a probable conclusion, not a necessary one. No inductive argument can arrive at an absolutely necessary conclusion. Inductive arguments usually gather together particular truths and arrive at general conclusions.
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Method of Generalization
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the most common type of inductive argument, one gathers together identical particular instances and arrives at some form of generalization.
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Method of analogy
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occurs when one observes relevantly similar particulars and attempts to arrive at a probable conclusion
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Probability calculus
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a form of inductive argumentation where one reasons on the basis of set rules in determining the likelihood of something occurring given all the possible variables.
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Statistical Reasoning
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an inductive argument based on the gathering of a sample population and arriving at averages, percentages, and general trends
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Causal Inference
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an inductive argument that begins with an observed effect and reasons back to its cause
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Hypothetical Reasoning
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inductive reasoning that begins with a problem with an unknown explanation. A hypothesis is formulated and tested with the goal of explaining the problem.
