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The set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal

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Motivation

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Concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs. - Do I really knock myself out for these performance appraisals or just do a decent job?

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Initiation of Effort

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Concerned with the choices that people make in deciding where to put forth effort in their jobs - I should be spending time with my high-dollar accounts instead of learning how this new computer system works!

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Direction of Effort

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Concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts - I'm only halfway through this project, and I'm exhausted. Do I plow through to the end, or just call it quits?

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Persistence of Effort

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List the components of motivation

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1) initiation 2) direction 3) persistence

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How well someone performs the requirements of the job

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Job Performance

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Effort, the degree to which someone works hard to do the job well

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Motivation

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The degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills, and talent needed to do a job well

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Ability

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Factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies, and resources that have an effect on job performance.

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Situational Constraints

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List the 3 primary determinants of job performance

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1) Motivation 2) Ability 3) Situational Constraints

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The physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensue survival and well-being

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Needs

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List the components of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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1) Physiological 2) Safety 3) Belongingness 4) Esteem 5) Self Actualization

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List the 3 well-known needs theories

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1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2) Alderfer's ERG Theory 3) McClelland's Learned Needs theory

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Realizing your full potential

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Self-Actualization

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Achievement and Recognition One of the components of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

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Esteem

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List the needs classified in Alderfer's ERG Theory

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1) Existence 2) Relatedness 3) Growth

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List the needs classified in McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

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1) Affiliation (to be liked and accepted) 2) Achievement (to accomplish challenging goals) 3) Power (to influence others)

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Argues that the degree to which particular needs motivate varies tremendously from person to person. Some people are motivated primarily by achievement and others by power or affiliation. Moreover, needs are learned, not innate. For example, studies show that children whose parents own a small business or hold a managerial position are much more likely to have a high need for achievement

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McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

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Argues that people can be motivated by more than one need at a time. Furthermore, people are just as likely to move down the needs hierarchy as up, particularly when they are unable to achieve satisfaction at the higher need level.

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Alderfer's ERG Theory

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Needs are arranged in a hierarchy from low (physiological) to high (self-actualization). Within this hierarchy, people are motivated by their lowest unsatisfied need. As each is met, they work their way up the hierarchy from physiological to self-actualiztion needs.

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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List the 2 basic kinds of needs categories

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1) Lower-order needs 2) Higher-order needs

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Concerned with safety and physiological and existence requirements

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Lower-order needs

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Concerned with relationships (belongingness, relatedness, and affiliation); Challenges and accomplishments (esteem, self actualization, growth, and achievement); and influence (power).

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Higher-order needs

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A reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

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Extrinsic Rewards

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Companies use extrinsic rewards to motivate people to perform what 4 basic behaviors?

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1) join the organization 2) regularly attend their jobs 3) perform their jobs well 4) stay with the organization

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A natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake

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Intrinsic Rewards

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What practical steps can managers take to motivate employees to increase their effort?

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1) Asking people what their needs are 2) Satisfy lower-order needs first 3) Expect people's needs to change 4) As needs change and lower-order needs are satisfied, create opportunities for employees to satisfy higher-order needs

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Most important extrinsic rewards

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1) good benefits and health insurance 2) job security 3) a week or more of vacation

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Who ranks job security as more important than personal and family time? Older or younger employees?

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Older employees

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Benefits are ranked as important as pay for what type of employees?

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Older employees

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Employees are likely to be (blank) when they perceive that they will be unable to perform at a level necessary to obtain rewards, whether intrinsic or extrinsic.

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Demotivated

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A theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

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Equity Theory

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What are the basic components of equity theory?

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1) Inputs 2) Outcomes 3) Referents

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One of the components of equity theory: The contributions employees make to the organization. Includes education, training, intelligence, experience, effort, number of hours worked, and ability

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Inputs

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One of the components of equity theory: What rewards employees receive in exchange for their contributions to the organization. Includes: pay, fringe benefits, status symbols, and job titles and assignments.

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Outcomes

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One of the components of equity theory: The others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly

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Referents

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An employee's perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee's contribution to that organization - After an internal comparison, employees then make an external comparison in which they compare themselves with a referent

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Outcome/Input (O/I) Ratio

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A form of inequity in which you are getting fewer outcomes relative to inputs than your referent is getting. When a referent's O/I ratio is better than your O/I ratio. People who perceive this tend to experience anger and frustration

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Underreward

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A form of inequity in which you are getting more outcomes relative to inputs than your referent Occurs when a referent's O/I ratio is worse than your O/I ratio. People who perceive this experience guilt, but people have a very high tolerance for this. It takes a hefty amount before people decide it is more than they deserve

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Overreward

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How do people who feel that they have been underrewarded try to restore equity?

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1) Decrease Inputs 2) Increase Outcomes 3) Rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes 4) Change the referent 5) Leave

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What practical steps can managers take to use equity theory to motivate employees?

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1) Look for and correct major inequities 2) Reduce employees' inputs 3) Make sure decision-making processes are fair

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The perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated Equity theory focuses on this

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Distributive Justice

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The perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions. Just as important as distributive justice

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Procedural Justice

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The theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards

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Expectancy Theory

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The attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome Affects employees willingness to put forth effort (the degree to which they are energized to take action)

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Valence

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The perceived relationship between effort and performance Transforms intended effort (i'm really going to work hard on this job) into actual effort.

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Expectancy

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The perceived relationship between performance and rewards Affects employees willingness to put forth effort (the degree to which they are energized to take action)

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Instrumentality

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Expectancy theory holds that people make conscious choices about their motivation. The three factors that affect those choices are: (components of expectancy theory)

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1) Valence 2) Expectancy 3) Instrumentality

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What steps can managers take to use expectancy theory to motivate employees?

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1) Systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs 2) Take specific steps to link rewards to individual performance in a way that is clear and understandable to employees (publicize the way in which pay decisions are made) 3) Empower employees to make decisions if management really wants them to believe that their hard work and effort will lead to good performance (if managers want employees to have strong expectancies, they should empower them to make decisions)

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The theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

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Reinforcement Theory

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The process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior

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Reinforcement

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List the two parts of reinforcement

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1) Reinforcement contingencies 2) Schedules of reinforcement

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The cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences. For example, if you get docked an hour's pay for being late to work, then this exists between behavior (being late) and a consequence (losing an hour's pay)

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Reinforcement Contingencies

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The set of rules regarding reinforcement contingencies that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered

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Schedule of Reinforcement

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List the 4 kinds of reinforcement contingencies

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1) Positive reinforcement 2) Negative reinforcement 3) Punishment 4) Extinction

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Reinforcement that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences

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Positive Reinforcement

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Reinforcement that strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior Also called "avoidance learning"

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Negative Reinforcement

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Reinforcement that weakens behavior (decreases its frequency) by following behaviors with undesirable consequences If done poorly, it can produce backlash against managers and companies, but if administered properly, it can weaken the frequency of undesirable behavior without causing backlash Must: be strong enough to stop undesirable behavior, administered objectively, impersonally (without emotion or anger), consistently and contingently (each time improper behavior occurs), and quickly - oral warning --> written warning --> 3 days off without pay --> getting fired

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Punishment

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Reinforcement strategy in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior. By removing the positive consequence, extinction weakens the behavior, making it less likely to occur

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Extinction

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List the 2 categories for reinforcement schedules

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1) Continuous 2) Intermittent

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A schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of behavior - Example: employees working on a piece-rate pay system earn money (consequence) for every part they manufacture (behavior). The more they produce, the more they earn

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Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

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A schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred

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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule

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Consists of 2 of the 4 types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: Based on time Usually produce weak results

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Interval Reinforcement Schedules

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Consists of 2 of the 4 types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: Based on behavior

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Ratio Schedules

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What are ratio schedules based on?

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Behavior

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What are interval reinforcement schedules based on?

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Time

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An intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed Most people receive their paychecks on this type of schedule (once or twice per month)

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Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule

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An intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average. Consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specified average time.

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Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule

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An intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors Example: A car salesperson might receive a $1000 bonus after every 10 sales

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Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule

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An intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors

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Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedules

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What practical steps can managers take to use reinforcement theory to motivate employees?

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1) Identify 2) Measure 3) Analyze 4) Intervene 5) Evaluate

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First step in motivating employees with reinforcement theory: Singling out critical, observable, performance related behaviors. These are the behaviors that are most important to successful job performance. They must be easily observed so that they can be accurately measured

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Identify

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Second step in motivating employees with reinforcement theory: Determining the baseline frequencies of these important behaviors. Find out how often workers perform them

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Measure

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Third step in motivating employees with reinforcement theory: Studying the causes and consequences of these behaviors. Helps managers create the conditions that produce these critical behaviors, and helps them determine whether these behaviors produce the results they want

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Analyze

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Fourth step in motivating employees with reinforcement theory: Changing the organization by using positive and negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of these critical behaviors

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Intervene

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Fifth step in motivating employees with reinforcement theory: Assessing the extent to which the intervention actually changed the workers' behavior, which is done by comparing behavior after the intervention to the original baseline of behavior before the intervention

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Evaluate

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A target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish

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Goal

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The theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement

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Goal-Setting Theory

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List the components of goal-setting theory

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1) Goal Specificity 2) Goal Difficulty 3) Goal Acceptance 4) Performance Feedback

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The extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. Detailed goals (such as trying to get above a 3.0 GPA) are more motivating than general goals (such as I am going to make better grades)

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Goal Specificity

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The extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish. Harder goals are more motivating than easy goals

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Goal Difficulty

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The extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals. Goals which we agree to are more motivating than goals we don't fully agree to

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Goal Acceptance

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Information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal.

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Performance Feedback

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What practical steps can managers take to use goal-setting theory to motivate employees?

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1) Give employees specific, challenging goals 2) Make sure workers truly accept organizational goals 3) Provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback

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An idea devised by Douglas McGregor in 1960 in his book "The Human Side of Enterprise." It encapsulated a fundamental distinction between management styles and has formed the basis for much subsequent writing on the subject.

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Theory X and Theory Y

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an authoritarian style where the emphasis is on "productivity, on the concept of a fair day's work, on the evils of feather-bedding and restriction of output, on rewards for performance ... [it] reflects an underlying belief that management must counteract an inherent human tendency to avoid work". Style that predominated in first few decades of the 2oth century

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Theory X

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a participative style of management which "assumes that people will exercise self-direction and self-control in the achievement of organisational objectives to the degree that they are committed to those objectives". It is management's main task in such a system to maximise that commitment.

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Theory Y

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Theory Y Managers believe that employees:

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1) Want to be involved 2) Can think for themselves and make decisions 3) Share ownership of tasks 4) Find work more rewarding if given responsibly and a variety of tasks 5) Have good ideas 6) Can engage in some level of self-management

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Theory X Managers believe that employees:

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1) Need to be controlled 2) Do not like work 3) Need to be pushed to be more productive 4) Need incentive schemes 5) Have to be directed to do things they do not enjoy

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List the 3 components to the basic model of motivation

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1) effort and performance 2) Need satisfaction 3) extrinsic and intrinsic rewards

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List the most important intrinsic rewards

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1) interesting work 2) the opportunity to learn new skills 3) independent work situations

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