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Evolution of Leadership construct and managerial work Implications for Development Leadership and Systems thinking in Management discourse

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• Yukl Chapter 1 • Barley and Kunda (1992) • Schwandt and Szabla (2007) • Sashkin (2010) • Hollander and Offerman (1990)

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Foundation leadership Five approaches

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1. the trait approach, 2. the behavior approach 3. the power-influence approach 4. the situational approach 5. the integrative approach.

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Trait Approach

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1. personality 2. motives 3. values 4. skills.

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Big Five" model (e.g., Digman, 1990; Hough, 1992). • The five broadly defined personality traits in the taxonomy have somewhat different labels from one version to another. The traits include

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1. surgency (or extroversion) 2. dependability (or conscientiousness) 3. agreeableness 4. adjustment (or neuroticism) 5. Intellectance (or openness to experience)

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Trait Approach

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• People are natural leaders • Abilities, energy, intuition, foresight

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Trait research

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• Look for traits that predict emergence as an informal leader in groups • Look for traits that predict advanced to higher levels of management • Look for traits related to effective performance but a manager in the current job

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trait research Stogdill Reviews of the Early Research

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1. physical characteristics (e.g., height, appearance) 2. aspects of personality (e.g., self-esteem, dominance, emotional stability) 3. aptitudes (e.g., general intelligence, verbal fluency, creativity).

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trait research

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Stogdill (1948) reviewed 124 trait studies conducted from 1904 to 1948 and found that the pattern of results was consistent with the conception of a leader as someone who acquires status by showing the ability to help the group in attaining its goals.

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trait research McClelland's Research on Managerial Motivation

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1. Power 2. Achievement 3. Affiliation

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Power

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• A person with a high need for power finds great satisfaction in exercising influence over the attitudes, emotions, and behavior of others. • This type of person enjoys winning an argument, defeating an opponent, eliminating a rival or enemy, and directing the activities of a group.

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Achievement

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• A person with a high need for achievement obtains satisfaction from: 1. experiencing success in accomplishing a difficult task 2. attaining a standard of excellence 3. developing a better way of doing something 4. being the first person to accomplish a difficult feat

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Affiliation

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A person with a strong need for affiliation is especially concerned about being liked and accepted and is very sensitive to cues indicating rejection or hostility from others.

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Behavior Approach

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The behavior approach began in the early 1950s after many researchers became discouraged with the trait approach and began to pay closer attention to what managers actually do on the job. • The behavior research falls into two general subcategories: 1. how managers spend their time 2. the typical pattern of activities, responsibilities, and functions for managerial jobs

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Behavior Approach

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• Most research on managerial work uses descriptive methods of data collection: 1. direct observation 2. diaries 3. job description questionnaires 4. anecdotes obtained from interviews.

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Power-Influence Approach

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• examines influence processes between leaders and other people. • takes a leader-centered perspective with an implicit assumption that causality is unidirectional (leaders act and followers react). • seeks to explain leadership effectiveness in terms of the amount and type of power possessed by a leader and how power is exercised.

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Situational Approach

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• comparative study of two or more situations. • The dependent variables may be managerial perceptions and attitudes, managerial activities and behavior patterns, or influence processes.

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Situational Approach

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2. attempts to identify aspects of the situation that "moderate" the relationship of leader attributes (e.g., traits, skills, behavior) to leadership effectiveness. • The assumption is that different attributes will be effective in different situations, and that the same attribute is not optimal in all situations. • Theories describing this relationship are sometimes called "contingency theories" of leadership.

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Situational Approach

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• emphasizes the importance of contextual factors that influence leadership processes. • Major situational variables include: 1. the characteristics of followers 2. the nature of the work performed by the leader's unit 3. the type of organization 4. the nature of the external environment

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Integrative Approach

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• involves more than one type of leadership variable. • In recent years it has become more common for researchers to include two or more types of leadership variables in the same study, but it is still rare to find a theory that includes all of them (i.e., traits, behavior, influence processes, situational variables, and outcomes).

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Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Theories

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1. an intra-individual process 2. a dyadic process 3. a group process 4. an organizational process

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Intra-Individual Theories

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• How leader traits and values influence leadership behavior • How leader skills are related to leader behavior • How leaders make decisions • How leaders manage their time • How leaders are influenced by role expectations and constraints • How leaders react to feedback and learn from experience • How leaders can use self-management techniques • How leaders can use Self-development techniques

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Dyadic Theories

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• How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task commitment • How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate • How a leader interprets information about a subordinate • How a leader develops a subordinate's skills and confidence • How a leader influences subordinate loyalty and trust • How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate, peer, or boss • How a leader and a subordinate influence each other • How a leader develops a cooperative exchange relationship with a subordinate

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Dyadic Theories

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• An example of a dyadic leadership theory is the leader-member exchange (LMX) theory • which describes how dyadic relationships evolve over time and take different forms, ranging from a casual exchange to a cooperative alliance with shared objectives and mutual trust

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Dyadic theories Graen & Scandura, 1987; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1991

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"life cycle model" with three possible stages 1. an initial testing phase in which the leader and subordinate evaluate each other's motives, attitudes, and potential resources to be exchanged, and mutual role expectations are established 2. the exchange arrangement is refined, and mutual trust, loyalty, and respect are developed 3. exchange based on self-interest is transformed into mutual commitment to the mission and objectives of the work unit the third stage corresponds to transformational leadership, whereas the first stage corresponds to transactional leadership

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Two-Stage Attribution Model Green and Mitchell (1979

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described the reaction of a manager to poor performance as a two-stage process. 1. the manager tries to determine the cause of the poor performance; 2. the manager tries to select an appropriate response to correct the problem.

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Group-Level Theories

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• How different leader-member relations affect each other and team performance • How leadership is shared in the group or team • How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of team members • How leaders influence cooperation and resolve disagreements in the team or unit • How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for the team or unit • How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in the team or unit • How leaders influence collective identification of members with the team or unit • How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the organization and other units

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Organizational-Level Theories

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• How top executives influence lower-level members • How leaders are selected at each level (and implications of process for the firm) • How leaders influence organizational culture • How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of internal operations • How leaders influence human relations and human capital in the organization • How leaders make decisions about competitive strategy and external initiatives • How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an organization • How leaders influence innovation and major change in an organization

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Traits and skills

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1. the conceptual skills (or "cognitive skills") are primarily concerned with ideas and concepts. Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships; creativity in idea generation and problem solving; ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning) 2. The technical skills are primarily concerned with things. Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity

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Nature of Traits and Skills

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1. Personality 2. Temperament 3. Needs 4. Motives 5. Values

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Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way.

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1. self-confidence 2. extroversion 3. emotional maturity 4. energy level

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motive

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• desire for particular types of stimuli or experiences. Psychologists usually differentiate between physiological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) and social motives such as achievement, esteem, affiliation, power, and independence. • Needs and motives are important because they influence attention to information and events, and they guide, energize, and sustain behavior.

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Values

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• are internalized attitudes about what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical, moral and immoral. • Examples include fairness, justice, honesty, freedom, equality, humanitarianism, loyalty, patriotism, progress, self-fulfillment, excellence, pragmatism, courtesy, politeness, and cooperation. • Values are important because they influence a person's preferences, perception of problems, and choice of behavior.

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skill

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the ability to do something in an effective manner. skills are determined jointly by learning and heredity taxonomies 1. technical skills 2. interpersonal 3. conceptual

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technical skills

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primarily concerned with things. Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity

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the interpersonal skills (or "social skills")

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primarily concerned with people. Interpersonal Skills: Knowledge about human behavior and interpersonal processes; ability to understand the feelings, attitudes, and motives of others from what they say and do (empathy, social sensitivity); ability to communicate clearly and effectively (speech fluency, persuasiveness); and ability to establish effective and cooperative relationships (tact, diplomacy, listening skill, knowledge about acceptable social behavior)

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conceptual skills (or "cognitive skills")

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primarily concerned with ideas and concepts. Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships; creativity in idea generation and problem solving; ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning)

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conceptual skills (or "cognitive skills") Barley & Kunda (1992) five waves of managerial discourse

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1. Industrial betterment (normative) 2. Self-management (rational) 3. Welfare capitalism / human relations (normative) 4. Systems rationalism (rational) 5. Organizational culture and quantity (normative)

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Industrial betterment

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Robert Owens and James Montgomery, from IB to welfare capitalism, improve the mental and moral qualities of working people, building libraries, recreational facilities

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Self-management

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apply the principles of their disciplines to the organization of production, schemes for improving management coordination and control, cost accounting systems, production control systems, wage payment plans

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Welfare capitalism / human relations

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entitlements and improved working conditions, vacation, sick leave, health care, testing, ergonomics, group oriented

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Systems rationalism

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operations research, from military to industry, developing and applying quantitative techniques to problems of planning and control, statistics, finance, functions and management

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Organizational culture and quantity

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organizations should be viewed as socially constructed systems of meanings, through the work of consultants.

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Schwandt & Szabla (2007) Social Systems and leadership

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Three aspects of the evolution 1. Reductionary rational 2. worldview to holism 3. non-rationality

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Schwandt & Szabla (2007) Social Systems

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Bertalanffy (1956) in his discussion of General Systems Theory as "a set of elements standing in interaction" (p. 3). • The social systems discourse throughout the century has been more concerned with: 1. the concepts of survival (goals) 2. causation 3. structures (control and power)

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Schwandt & Szabla (2007) leadership

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• the power elite, those leaders thought to have a built-in genius. In the early 1900s, the trait approach explained the notion of "the great man theory of leadership" as people who were born, not made. • These initial definitions of leadership depicted leaders as commanding and controlling; later theories described leaders as strategic thinkers, teachers, and stewards. • Throughout the century, the image of the leader as an authority figured slowly dissolved into a representation of the leader as a facilitator.

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Schwandt & Szabla (2007)

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1. Period One: Work Systems to Cooperative Systems (1900-1940) 2. Period Two: Functionally Driven Systems to Interactive Systems (1940-1970) 3. Period Three: Learning Systems to Complex Systems Theory (1970-2000)

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Schwandt & Szabla (2007) Period One: Work Systems to Cooperative Systems (1900-1940) Systems Discourse

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• from the mechanical and formalized reductionary application of systems theory to a functionalist analysis of the social system. • The discourse is characterized by the control of production of materials and products and the need to structure a workforce in an industrial age that could provide the labor requirements for a growing population and economy

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Schwandt & Szabla (2007) Period One: Work Systems to Cooperative Systems (1900-1940) leadership Discourse

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• Leadership thought in the early 1900s was dominated by the "great man"4 theory. • The basic premise of this theory, which originally was postulated by Thomas Carlyle (1907) in his writings on the theory of the hero, was that men are created not equal. • In an analysis of Carlyle's work, Lehman (1928) construed that "there is no democracy in the realm of the intellect; men have widely differing holds on their environments through complex instrumentality of hand and head and heart" (p. 5).

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations

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• Self • Skills • system

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Self

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• Confidence • Need for Power • Cause-effect Thinking

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Skills

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• Communicating • Building Trust • Empowering Actions

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations system

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• Culture • Distributed Leadership • Self-Organization

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Self-Confidence

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• Conscientiousness incorporates a sense of self-control, that is, of one's ability to take actions that produce the outcomes and results one desires. • It reflects one's sense of being in control of what happens rather than being controlled by circumstances or by others.

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Need for Power (ii Pow)

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• The social psychologist David McClelland described how development of the need for power, for control over one's environment and one's life, is related to an individual's personal development, from infancy through childhood to adulthood. • He described the infant as focused on the need for closeness to the mother, since it is through the mother that all of a child's needs are met, at least initially. • The need for affiliation develops through the very young child's attachment to the mother, and the attachment process itself is crucial if one is to live successfully in a social environment, that is, among others.

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Cause-effect thinking

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Sociologists and those who study organizations as systems rather than in terms of individuals and groups often see leadership as the development of a strategy by a top management team.

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Neuroscience Applications

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• Development of the human brain can be considered, broadly speaking, in terms of three overlapping stages. • The three aspects of brain development were first identified by the neurologist Dr. Paul McLean who for many years led a neuroscience lab at NIH

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Skills

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Three skills are especially important in the 3S Model: 1. Communication of complex ideas clearly as well as well as getting across values and beliefs; 2. Consistent and credible actions that build trust; 3. Creating empowering opportunities for followers.

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Postmodernism

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• Postmodernism is essentially a way of looking at the world based on the view that subjectivity and interpretation are essential elements of existence. • In this sense postmodernism is more a philosophy than a set of facts. It does, however, prove especially useful for understanding the key to leadership—including distributed leadership.

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations Postmernism

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• Postmodernism is essentially a way of looking at the world based on the view that subjectivity and interpretation are essential elements of existence. • In this sense postmodernism is more a philosophy than a set of facts. It does, however, prove especially useful for understanding the key to leadership—including distributed leadership.

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Marshall Sashkin The 3S Model of Transformational Leadership: A New Approach to Understanding Leadership in Organizations The System

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The 3S Model points out that transformational leaders attend to and act on three system characteristics: 1. Culture of the organization, the shared values and beliefs that drive and guide the actions of organization members (agents); 2. Agency and distributed leadership, the independent, self-directed, and to a degree unpredictable actions of individual organization members and groups of organization members, taking on leadership roles on the basis of their own values and self-interests; 3. Self-Organizing Systems, the emergence of which is outcome of the interaction between culture and agency.

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Hollander rand Offerman (1990) Power and leadership organizations

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Concepts of empowerment and power sharing reflect a shift from a leader dominate view to a broader one of follower involvement in expanding power

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Hollander rand Offerman (1990) Power and leadership organizations

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• Participative decision making (PDM), subordinates influences strategies • Distributing power: delegation in decision making (1) individual member making decisions

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Foundations" - 4 Traditional Conceptions of Leadership: 1. Traits & Skills 2. Participation 3. Contingency and situational 4. Relational and Transformational

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• Yukl chapter 16, 3-9 • Schwandt (2005) • Graen and Uhl Bien (1995) • Vroom and Jago (2007) • Bennis (2007)

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Yukl chapter 16

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...

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Power and influence

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• Influence is the essence of leadership • Much of the activity of formal leaders involves attempts to influence the attitudes and behavior or people • More influence to change strategy • Less when people to change have same objectives and motivated • Power: formal authority, control over distribution of rewards punishment

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Explanatory constructs at three levels of conceptualization

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• Dyadic • Small group or team • organization

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Trust and cooperation

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• Dyadic include trust and cooperation influence • Lmx Graen and Uhl Bien (1995) • Path-goal House and Mitchell (1974) • Transformational leadership Avolo and Bass (19950 • High-level leadership (Blake and Mounton (1987)

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Social identification

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• Personal identification by a subordinate with the leader providers potential influence over the subordinate • Charismatic leadership theory, personal identification is one explanation for a subordinate for a subordinate loyalty to already Conger (1998)

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empowerment

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• Empowerment involves autonomy, shared responsibility, and influence in making important decisions. • Similar concepts of empowerment have been used at all three conceptual levels to explain effective leadership (Seibert, Silver, & Randolph, 2004; Spreitzer, 1986). • In dyadic theories empowerment is primarily a result of a leader's use of delegation or consultation with individual subordinates (e.g.,Vroom & Yetton, 1973).

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Shared Beliefs and Values (Culture)

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• Organizational culture is usually defined as the shared values and beliefs of members (Schein, 1992; Trice & Beyer, 1991). • Cultural values can enhance the performance of an organization if they are consistent with the types of processes needed to accomplish the mission and adapt to internal and external challenges (Gordon & DiTomaso, 1992; Kotter & Heskett, 1992). • For example, shared values such as flexibility, creativity, and entrepreneurial initiative can facilitate innovation and organizational learning (Baer & Frese, 2003). • Shared values about reliability, meeting deadlines, error- free performance, controlling costs, and responsible use of resources, and adherence to best practices and standard procedures can enhance efficiency (Miron, Erez, & Naveh, 2004).

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Biases in the Conceptualization of Leadership

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• Much previous research and theory on leadership emphasized the primary importance of a single, heroic leader. • It is a basic postulate of most recent theories of transformational or charismatic leadership that an effective leader will influence followers to make self-sacrifices and exert exceptional effort. • Influence is unidirectional, and it flows from the leader to followers.

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Emerging Conceptions of Leadership

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• Shared and Distributed Leadership • Relational Leadership • Social networks • Emergent processes in complexity theory

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Shared and Distributed Leadership

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• The theory and research on leadership has long recognized that effective leaders empower others to participate in the process of interpreting events, solving problems, and making decisions (Argyris, 1964; Likert, 1967). • The emphasis in most of the traditional approaches is on finding ways to make an individual leader more effective.

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Distributed Leadership

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• power sharing, and political activities are inevitable in organizations, not something determined by a single all-powerful leader. • Proponents of this perspective recognize that the actions of any individual leader are less important than the collective leadership provided by many members of the organization, including both formal and informal leaders (Day, Gronn, & Salas, 2004).

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Relational Leadership

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• How leaders use relations-oriented behaviors to improve relationships was described in Chapter 4. • How leaders develop favorable exchange relationships over time with individual subordinates was described in Chapter 8. • How leaders can develop a network of outside contacts and supporters was described in Chapter 3. • How leaders influence followers to identify with them and cooperate in achieving shared objectives was described in Chapters 2 and 9. • How relationships moderate the effects of leader behavior on subordinate motivation and performance was described in Chapter 6.

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CHAPTER 3 Mintzberg's Managerial Roles

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Information-Processing Roles • Liaison • Monitor • Spokesperson Decision-Making Roles • Entrepreneur • Disturbance Handler • Resource AIlocator • Negotiator Interpersonal Roles • Liaison • Figurehead • Leader

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Role Conflicts

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• The discussion of characteristic managerial roles emphasizes the types of activities commonly expected of managers, regardless of the type of position. • However, many different people ("role senders") in an organization exert pressure on the manager to conform with their beliefs about the proper way to behave ("role expectations").

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Situational Determinants

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• There are differences in the pattern of demands, constraints, and choices for different types of managerial jobs, depending on aspects of the situation such as the type of organization and the nature of the work. • Based on Stewart's research, three factors were found to be important for comparing managerial jobs with respect to behavioral requirements. 1. Pattern relationships 2. Work pattern 3. exposure

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CHAPTER 4 Perspectives on Effective Leadership Behavior

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• descriptive research that was designed to identify typical activity patterns of managers, not to determine how effective leaders differ in behavior from ineffective leaders. • The current chapter will review research on the types of leadership behavior most likely to influence subordinate satisfaction and performance. • The methods used for this research include behavior description questionnaires, laboratory and field experiments, and critical incidents.

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Leadership Behaviors studies Ohio State Leadership Studies

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• Questionnaire research on effective leadership behavior was strongly influenced by the early research at Ohio State University during the 1950s. • The initial task of the researchers was to identify categories of relevant leadership behavior and develop questionnaires to measure how often a leader used these behaviors.

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Leadership Behaviors

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• Factor analysis of the questionnaire responses indicated that subordinates perceived their supervisor's behavior primarily in terms of two broadly defined categories labeled "consideration" and "initiating structure." • The two types of behavior were relatively independent, which means that a leader's use of one behavior was not necessarily the same as his or her use of the other behavior.

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Leadership Behaviors Consideration.

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• involves leader concern for accomplishing the task. • The leader defines and structures his or her own role and the roles of subordinates toward attainment of task goals.

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Leadership Behaviors Michigan Leadership Studies

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• A second major program of research on leadership behavior was carried out by researchers at the University of Michigan at approximately the same time as the Ohio State leadership studies. • The focus of the Michigan research was the identification of relationships among leader behavior, group processes, and measures of group performance. • The initial research was a series of field studies with a variety of leaders, including section managers in an insurance company (Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950), supervisors in a large manufacturing company (Katz & Kahn, 1952), and supervisors of railroad section gangs (Katz, Maccoby, Gurin, & Floor, 1951).

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Leadership Behaviors

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1. Task-oriented behavior 2. Relations-oriented behavior 3. Participative Leadership

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Leadership Behaviors Task-oriented behavior

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• Effective managers did not spend their time and effort doing the same kind of work as their subordinates. Instead, the more effective managers concentrated on task-oriented functions such as planning and scheduling the work, coordinating subordinate activities, and providing necessary supplies, equipment, and technical assistance.

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Leadership Behaviors Relations-oriented behavior

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The effective managers were also more supportive and helpful with subordinates. Supportive behaviors that were correlated with effective leadership included showing trust and confidence, acting friendly and considerate, trying to understand subordinate problems, helping to develop subordinates and further their careers, keeping subordinates informed, showing appreciation for subordinates' ideas, allowed considerable autonomy in how subordinates do the work, and providing recognition for subordinates' contributions and accomplishments.

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Leadership Behaviors Participative Leadership

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• Effective managers used more group supervision instead of supervising each subordinate separately. Group meetings facilitate subordinate participation in decision making, improve communication, promote cooperation, and facilitate conflict resolution. • The role of the manager in group meetings should be primarily to guide the discussion and keep it supportive, constructive, and oriented toward problem solving.

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Limitations of Survey

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Research on Leader Behavior Survey research with questionnaires is by far the most common method used to study the relationship between leadership behavior and various antecedents (e.g., leader traits, attitudes) or outcomes of this behavior (e.g., subordinate satisfaction and performance).

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Biases in Behavior Description Questionnaires

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Behavior description questionnaires are susceptible to several types of bias and error (Luthans & Lockwood, 1984; Schriesheim & Kerr, 1977a; Uleman, 1991). One source of error is the use of ambiguous items that can be interpreted in different ways by different respondents. Most leadership questionnaires have a fixed-response format that requires respondents to think back over a period of several months or years and indicate how often or how much a leader used the behavior described in an item.

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The High-High Leader

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• The extensive research on task-oriented and relations-oriented leadership during the 1960s gave rise to the idea of the "high-high" leader. • Blake and Mouton (1964) proposed a model called the managerial grid to describe managers in terms of concern for people and concern for production.

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Chapter 5 Participative Leadership, Delegation, and Empowerment

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• Participative leadership involves the use of various decision procedures that allow other people some influence over the leader's decisions. • Other terms commonly used to refer to aspects of participative leadership include consultation, joint decision making, power sharing, decentralization, empowerment, and democratic management. • Participative leadership can be regarded as a distinct type of behavior, although it may be used in conjunction with specific task and relations behaviors (Likert, 1967; Yukl, 1971).

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Varieties of Participation four decision procedures as distinct and meaningful

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1. Autocratic Decision: The manager makes a decision alone without asking for the opinions or suggestions of other people, and these people have no direct influence on the decision; there is no participation. 2. Consultation: The manager asks other people for their opinions and ideas, then makes the decision alone after seriously considering their suggestions and concerns. 3. Joint Decision: The manager meets with others to discuss the decision problem and make a decision together; the manager has no more influence over the final decision than any other participant. 4. Delegation: The manager gives an individual or group the authority and responsibility for making a decision; the manager usually specifies limits within which the final choice must fall, and prior approval may or may not be required before the decision can be implemented.

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Participative leadership Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1958;

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two varieties of autocratic decision, one in which the leader merely announces an autocratic decision ("tell" style), and the other in which the leader uses influence tactics such as rational persuasion ("sell" style).

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Participative leadership Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1958; The same writers also distinguished three varieties of consultation:

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1. the leader presents a decision made without prior consultation, but is willing to modify it in the face of strong objections and concerns 2. the leader presents a tentative proposal and actively encourages people to suggest ways to improve it 3. the leader presents a problem and asks others to participate in diagnosing it and developing solutions, but then makes the decision alone. Vroom and Yetton (1973) distinguish between consulting with individuals and consulting with a group.

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Consequences of Participative Leadership

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• This section of the chapter examines the potential benefits of participation and explanatory processes for the effects of participation (see Figure 5-2). • Situational variables that enhance or limit the effects of participation are discussed later in the chapter as part of the theories developed to explain why this form of leadership is not effective in all situations.

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Research on Effects of Participative Leadership

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• Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939) and Coch and French (1948), social scientists have been interested in studying the consequences of participative leadership. • After supportive and task-oriented behavior, the largest amount of behavior research has been on participative leadership. • The research has employed a variety of methods, including laboratory experiments, field experiments, correlational field studies, and qualitative case studies involving interviews with effective leaders and their subordinates. • Most of the studies involved participation by subordinates, and the criteria of leader effectiveness were usually subordinate satisfaction and performance.

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Participative leadership Normative Decision Model

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• The importance of using decision procedures that are appropriate for the situation has been recognized for some time. • Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) noted that a leader's choice of decision procedures reflects forces in the leader, forces in the subordinates, and forces in the situation.

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Participative leadership Normative Decision Model

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Maier (1963) pointed out the need for leaders to consider both the quality requirements of a decision and the likelihood of subordinate acceptance before choosing a decision procedure

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Participative leadership Vroom and Yetton Model

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• two varieties of autocratic decision (Al and All) • , two varieties of consultation (CI and CII), • and one variety of joint decision making by leader and subordinates • as a group (Gil).

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CHAPTER 6 Early Contingency Theories of Effective Leadership six contingency theories of leadership:

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1. path-goal theory 2. situational leadership theory 3. leader substitutes theory 4. the multiple-linkage model 5. LPC contingency theory 6. cognitive resources theory.

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Situational Variables

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The relationship between leader LPC score and effectiveness depends on a complex situational variable called situational favorability (or situational control), which is defined as the extent to which the situation gives a leader control over subordinates.

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Three aspects of the situation are considered.

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1. Leader-member relations: The extent to which subordinates are loyal, and relations with subordinates are friendly and cooperative. 2. Position power. The extent to which the leader has authority to evaluate subordinate performance and administer rewards and punishments. 3. Task structure: The extent to which standard operating procedures are in place to accomplish the task, along with a detailed description of the finished product or service and objective indicators of how well the task is being performed.

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Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

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• The path-goal theory of leadership was developed to explain how the behavior of a leader influences the satisfaction and performance of subordinates. • Building on an early version of the theory by Evans (1970), House (1971) formulated a more elaborate version that included situational variables.

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Contingencies theories Explanatory Processes

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• A motivation theory called expectancy theory (Georgopoulos, Mahoney, & Jones, 1957; Vroom, 1964) is used to explain how a leader can influence subordinate satisfaction and effort. • Expectancy theory describes work motivation in terms of a rational choice process in which a person decides how much effort to devote to the job at a given point of time.

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Contingencies theories Leader Behaviors

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1. Supportive leadership: Giving consideration to the needs of subordinates, displaying concern for their welfare, and creating a friendly climate in the work unit.

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Contingencies theories Leader Behaviors

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2. Directive leadership: Letting subordinates know what they are expected to do, giving specific guidance, asking subordinates to follow rules and procedures, and scheduling and coordinating the work.

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Contingencies theories Leader Behaviors

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3. Participative leadership: Consulting with subordinates and taking their opinions and suggestions into account.

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Contingencies theories Leader Behaviors

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4. Achievement-oriented leadership: Setting challenging goals, seeking better performance, emphasizing excellence, and showing confidence that subordinates will attain high standards.

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Situational Leadership Theory

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• Hersey and Blanchard (1977) proposed a contingency theory that specifies the appropriate type of leadership behavior for different levels of subordinate "maturity" in relation to the work. • A high-maturity subordinate has both the ability and confidence to do a task, whereas a low-maturity subordinate lacks ability and self- confidence.

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Situational Leadership Theory

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1. For a low-maturity subordinate (M1), the leader should use substantial task- oriented behavior and be directive in defining roles, clarifying standards and procedures, and monitoring progress on attainment of objectives. 2. As subordinate maturity increases up to a moderate level (M2 and M3), the leader can decrease the amount of task-oriented behavior and provide more relations-oriented behavior. The leader should act supportive, consult with the subordinate, and provide praise and attention. For a high-maturity subordinate (M4), the leader should use a low level of task-oriented and relations-oriented behaviors.

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Multiple-Linkage Model

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The multiple-linkage model (Yukl, 1981, 1989) builds upon earlier models of leadership and group effectiveness, including path-goal theory, leadership substitutes theory, and the Vroom-Yetton normative decision theory.

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The four types of variables

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1. managerial behaviors 2. intervening variables 3. criterion variables 4. situational variables

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intervening variables

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The six intervening variables in the model are based on earlier research and theory on determinants of individual and group performance (e.g., Hackman, Brousseau, & Weiss, 1976; Likert, 1967; McGrath, 1984; Porter & Lawler, 1968).

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Task commitment

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1The extent to which unit members strive to attain a high level of performance and show a high degree of personal commitment to unit task objectives.

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Ability and role clarity

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The extent to which unit members understand their individual job responsibilities, know what to do, and have the skills to do it.

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Organization of the work

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The extent to which effective performance strategies are used to attain unit task objectives and the work is organized to ensure efficient utilization of personnel, equipment, and facilities.

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Cooperation and mutual trust

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the extent to which group members trust each other, share information and ideas, help each other, and identify with the work unit.

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Resources and support

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The extent to which the group has the budgetary funds, tools, equipment, supplies, personnel, and facilities needed to do the work, and necessary information or assistance from other units.

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External coordination

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The extent to which activities of the work unit are synchronized with the interdependent activities in other parts of the organization and other organizations (e.g., suppliers, clients, joint venture partners).

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Leader vs follower Centered theory

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1. Empowerment theory describes how followers view their ability to influence important events (see Chapter 5). 2. Attribution theory describes how followers view a leader's influence on events and outcomes (see Chapter 8). 3. other theories explain how followers can actively influence their work role and relationship with the leader, rather than being passive recipients of leader influence 4. The leader substitutes theory (see Chapter 6) describes aspects of the situation and follower attributes that make a hierarchical leader less important. 5. The emotional contagion theory of charisma (see Chapter 9) describes how followers influence each other. 6. theories of self-managed groups emphasize sharing of leadership functions among the members of a group; in this approach, the followers are also the leaders (see Chapter 12).

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Descriptive theory

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Descriptive theories explain leadership processes, describe the typical activities of leaders, and explain why certain behaviors occur in particular situations.

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Prescriptive Theory

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Prescriptive theories specify what leaders must do to become effective, and they identify any necessary conditions for using a particular type of behavior effectively. A prescriptive theory is especially useful when a wide discrepancy exists between what leaders typically do and what they should do to be most effective.

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A universal theory can be either descriptive or prescriptive.

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A descriptive universal theory may describe typical functions performed to some extent by all types of leaders

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A universal theory can be either descriptive or prescriptive.

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a prescriptive universal theory may specify functions all leaders must perform to be effective.

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A contingency theory describes some aspect of leadership that applies to some situations but not to others. Contingency theories can also be either descriptive or prescriptive.

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A descriptive contingency theory may explain how leader behavior typically varies from one situation to another

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A contingency theory describes some aspect of leadership that applies to some situations but not to others. Contingency theories can also be either descriptive or prescriptive.

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a prescriptive contingency theory may specify the most effective behavior in each type of situation.

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CHAPTER 7 Power and Influence

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• Influence is the essence of leadership. • To be effective as a leader, it is necessary to influence people to carry out requests, support proposals, and implement decisions. In large organizations, the effectiveness of managers depends on influence over superiors and peers as well as influence over subordinates. Influence in one direction tends to enhance influence in other directions.

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Conceptions of Power and Influence

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Terms such as power and authority have been used in different ways by different writers, thereby creating considerable conceptual confusion

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Power

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• The concept of "power" is useful for understanding how people are able to influence each other in organizations (Mintzberg, 1983; Pfeffer, 1981, 1992). • Power involves the capacity of one party (the "agent") to influence another party (the "target").

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Authority

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Authority involves the rights, prerogatives, obligations, and duties associated with particular positions in an organization or social system. A leader's authority usually includes the right to make particular types of decisions for the organization

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Influence Processes

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The psychological explanation for the influence of one person on another involves the motives and perceptions of the target in relation to the actions of the agent and the context in which the interaction occurs

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Kelman (1958) proposed three different types of influence processes:

answer

1. instrumental compliance 2. internalization 3. personal identification.

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Instrumental Compliance.

answer

a) The target person carries out a requested action for the purpose of obtaining a tangible reward or avoiding a punishment controlled by the agent. The motivation for the behavior is purely instrumental; the only reason for compliance is to gain some tangible benefit from the agent. The level of effort is likely to be the minimum amount necessary to gain the rewards or avoid the punishment.

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Internalization.

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bThe target person becomes committed to support and implement proposals espoused by the agent because they appear to be intrinsically desirable and correct in relation to the target's values, beliefs, and self-image. In effect, the agent's proposal (e.g., an objective, plan, strategy, policy, procedure) becomes linked to the target person's underlying values and beliefs. Commitment occurs regardless of whether any tangible benefit is expected, and the target's loyalty is to the ideas themselves, not to the agent who communicates them.

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Personal Identification.

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c) The target person imitates the agent's behavior or adopts the same attitudes to please the agent and to be like the agent. The motivation for the target probably involves the target person's needs for acceptance and esteem. By doing things to gain approval from the agent, the target is able to maintain a relationship that satisfies a need for acceptance. Maintaining a close relationship with an attractive agent may help to satisfy the target person's need for esteem from other people, and becoming more like an attractive agent helps the target person maintain a more favorable self-image.

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French and Raven (1959) developed a taxonomy to classify different types of power according to their source.

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a) Reward Power: b) Legitimate Power: c) Expert Power: d) Referent Power:

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a) Reward Power:

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a) Reward Power: The target person complies in order to obtain rewards controlled by the agent. Coercive Power: The target person complies in order to avoid punishments controlled by the agent.

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b) Legitimate Power:

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b) Legitimate Power: The target person complies because he/she believes the agent has the right to make the request and the target person has the obligation to comply

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c) Expert Power:

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c) Expert Power: The target person complies because he/she believes that the agent has special knowledge about the best way to do something.

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d) Referent Power:

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d) Referent Power: The target person complies because he/she admires or identifies with the agent and wants to gain the agent's approval.

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Yukl and Falbe (1991) showed that these two types of power are relatively independent, and each includes several distinct but partially overlapping components

answer

1. Position power 2. Personal power

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Position power

answer

includes potential influence derived from legitimate authority, control over resources and rewards, control over punishments, control over information, and control over the physical work environment.

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Personal power

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includes potential influence derived from task expertise, and potential influence based on friendship and loyalty. Position and personal determinants of power interact in complex ways, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between them..

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Coercive Power

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• A leader's coercive power over subordinates is based on authority over punishments, which varies greatly across different types of organizations. • The coercive power of military and political leaders is usually greater than that of corporate managers.

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Information Power

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• This type of power involves both the access to vital information and control over its distribution to others (Pettigrew, 1972). • Some access to information results from a person's position in the organization's communication network.

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Ecological Power

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Control over the physical environment, technology, and organization of the work provides an opportunity for indirect influence over other people.

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Social Exchange Theory

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The most fundamental form of social interaction is an exchange of benefits or favors, which can include not only material benefits but also psychological benefits such as expressions of approval, respect, esteem, and affection. Individuals learn to engage in social exchanges early in their childhood, and they develop expectations about reciprocity and equity in these exchanges.

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CHAPTER 9 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

answer

...

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Two Early Theories Charisma

answer

• Max Weber. Charisma is a Greek word that means "divinely inspired gift," such as the ability to perform miracles or predict 'future events. Weber (1947) used the term to describe a form of influence based not on tradition or formal authority but rather on follower perceptions that the leader is endowed with exceptional qualities. • According to Weber, charisma occurs during a social crisis, when a leader emerges with a radical vision that offers a solution to the crisis and attracts followers who believe in the vision. • The followers experience some successes that make the vision appear attainable, and they come to perceive the leader as extraordinary.

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Transforming Leadership

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...

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The theories of transformational leadership were strongly influenced by James McGregor Burns (1978)

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1. Transforming leadership 2. Transforming leadership

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Transforming leadership

answer

appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions. Transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest and exchanging benefits

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Transforming leadership

answer

appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions. Transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest and exchanging benefits

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Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership

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• Conger and Kanungo (1987) proposed a theory of charismatic leadership based on the assumption that charisma is an attributional phenomenon. • Subsequently, a refined version of the theory was presented by Conger (1989) and by Conger and Kanungo (1998). • According to the theory, follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly determined by the leader's behavior, expertise, and aspects of the situation.

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Leader Traits and Behaviors

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• Follower attributions of charisma depend on several types of leader behavior. • These behaviors are not assumed to be present in every charismatic leader to the same extent, and the relative importance of each type of behavior for attribution of charisma depends to some extent on the leadership situation.

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Transformational Behaviors

answer

• Idealized influence • Individualized consideration Inspirational motivation • Intellectual stimulation

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Transactional Behaviors

answer

• Contingent reward • Active management by exception Passive management by exception • Based on Bass (1996)

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Transformational vs. Charismatic Leadership

answer

• Transformational leaders probably do more things that will empower followers and make them less dependent on the leader, such as delegating significant authority to individuals, developing follower skills and self-confidence, creating self-managed teams, providing direct access to sensitive information, eliminating unnecessary controls, and building a strong culture to support empowerment. • Charismatic leaders probably do more things that foster an image of extraordinary competence for the leader, such as impression management, information restriction, unconventional behavior, and personal risk taking.

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Schwandt (2005)

answer

Two constructs: sensemaking and earning, both creating meaning, the necessarily for action to be linked with cognition, the importance of both subjective and objective knowledge

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

• Sensemaking ties meaning and meaning making to organizational outcomes such as strategy, identity, or effectiveness • Adult learning emerges from an individual education or development perspective that although not divorced from pragmatic issues is focused on meaning as it relates to individual growth, development, change, freedom

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

1. Grounded in identity construction: the indicative combination of self-identity of the actor and the identity of the organization forms and sustains the socially constructed meaning assigned to event

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

2. Retrospective: meaningful lived experience, past-tense nature of assignment of meaning aft one sees what one has experienced, time duration in conjunction with the need for immediate reduction in equivocality not reflection on the appropriateness of the sensemaking framework

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

3. Enactive of sensible environments: action is predication for sensemaking, people often produce part of their environment and in turn, the environment influences the person's meaning making and actions

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

4. Social sensemaking: what people do in contingent on others, experience of the collective actions that is important for the individual to create and test meaning

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

5. Ongoing: neither starts fresh nor stops clearly, the process of assigning meaning to events should not become mindless

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick

answer

6. Focused on and by extracted cues: environmental context, organizational vocabularies, languages, search strategies and noticing

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Schwandt (2005) Seven characteristics according to Weick:

answer

7. Driven by plausibility rather than accuracy: pragmatic, coherence, reasonableness, creation, invention, and instruments

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Schwandt (2005) Adult learners using Merrian and Caffarella's classification

answer

1. Behaviorist: 2. Cognitivist 3. Humanist 4. Social learning: 5. Constructivist:

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Behaviorist:

answer

depend on environmental stimuli to evoke responses or behavioral changes, Skinner (69,74); Thorndike (32); if one knows the desired behavior or competencies required for a task, then learning can be induced by manipulating the appropriate environmental stimuli

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Cognitivist

answer

interested in the stimuli, their assumptions really on the human mind's ability to produce knowledge and insight through information, processes and insight through information processing and memory retention: Piaget four stages: sensory motor, use of symbols and words to represent concrete objects, understanding of concepts and ideas, the ability to reason hypothetically, logically, and systematically

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Humanist

answer

broadened the concept of adult learning by incorporating both affective and cognitive needs as pre-requites for filling the individual as a whole person, relationship between learner and his/her environment is characteristics by discovery, value, acquisition, control of impulses

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Social learning:

answer

emphasizes the individual knowledge dependence on interaction with and observation of other people in a social context, triadic reciprocal relationships, 1. Learner's internal cognitive affective and biological factors, 2. Learner's external actions and behaviors, 3. External social environment form a dynamic systems approach to learning

question

Constructivist:

answer

theories concerning learning are based on the social construction of reality and knowledge, a. The belief in the social construction of reality, b. the implied need for taking a reflexive stance, c. A sociocultural rather than individual, focus for the study of communications, d. The investigation of symbols

question

Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)

answer

• Leader member exchange Theory • Used in complexity • Suggest that leaders should try to establish high exchange relationships with all subordinates • LMX theory can extend to other dyadic relationships (peers and informal networks)

question

Vroom & Jago (2007)

answer

• Normative decision model • AI: autocratic • AII: get information from others, but autocratic • CI: consult with others, but individually, still autocratic • CII: consult with several individuals at the same time, a group, but still autocratic • GIII: shared, consult with group, accepts the groups recommendations • Bennis (2007)

question

Usefulness" - Decision Making, Change, Strategy; Shared Leadership; Critiquing research

answer

...

question

Arnone, M., & Stumpf, S. A. (2010). Shared leadership: five criteria were identified for success of a co-head structure:

answer

1) The breadth and degree of buy-in of key stakeholders at the time of a decision, often determined through extensive feedback from direct reports; 2) Stronger business results in terms of both sales and net profits; 3) More initiatives taken for business growth and expansion; 4) The creation of a more supportive, positive climate along with the retention of key talent ; 5) A decrease in personal stress as reported by the co-head.

question

Conger, J. A., & Pearce, C. L. (2003)

answer

1. The relationship between shared leadership and vertical 2. Fine-grained dynamics of how shared with group and organizational settings 3. Steps required to effectively implement shared leadership 4. Outcomes associated with shared leadership settings 5. Measurement of the phenomenon 6. Cross-cultural influences 7. Liabilities and limits of shared leadership

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Antonakis (2004)

answer

1. Hypotheses 2. Theory Development 3. Qualitative and Quantitative Distinctions 4. Categories of Research 5. Laboratory Experiments 6. Field Experiments 7. Field Studies 8. Survey Research 9. Research Design and Validity Issues 10. Methods of Statistical Analysis 11. Context and the Boundary Conditions of Leadership Theories 12. The Detection of Boundary Conditions of Theories 13. Structural-Equation Modeling 14. Moderated Regression 15. Meta-Analysis

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Hazy (2005)

answer

macro, meso, micro convergence: vision, shared, emergent variety: diversity, support, leads to unity: boundaries, developed, agent level

question

Hackman & Wageman (2007)

answer

1. Not do leaders make a difference, but under what conditions does leadership matter? 2. Not what are the traits of leaders, but how do leaders' personal attributes interact with situational properties to shape outcomes? 3. Not do there exist common dimensions on which all leaders can be arrayed, but are good and poor leadership qualitatively different phenomena? 4. Not how do leaders and followers differ, but how can leadership models be reformulated so they treat all system members as both leaders and followers? 5. Not what should be taught in leadership courses, but how can leaders be helped to learn?

question

Sashkin (2007) "Critiquing Research"

answer

Guideline 1: Style Guideline 2: The Abstract Guideline 3: Background/ Problem Statement Guideline 4: The Literature Review Guideline 5: Method Guideline 6: Results Guideline 7: Discussion/Conclusion Guideline 8: References Guideline 9: Appendices

question

New Directions - Complexity and Interaction Complexity; Culture, Values, Ethics; Implications for development; Paper discussions & wrap-up

answer

...

question

Schwandt (2007)

answer

interactive coevolution nature of human structuring actions and interactions as leadership in and across two levels of analysis the organization (meso level) the individual (micro level)

question

Schwandt (2007)

answer

action theory approach can provide a more robust understanding of the dynamics of structuring action as bridging mechanism across levels of analysis

question

Jennings & Dooley(2007)

answer

1. larger social economic context providing the impetus behind the CTL paradigm shift 2. a core set of concepts that depart significantly from traditional conceptualizations of leadership 3. innovative research methods that provide more comprehensive and integrative theoretical insights then traditional research methods

question

Schneider & Somer (2006)

answer

• organizational identity and social movements serve as mediating variables between leadership and organizational emergence • leadership is incremental influence over and above compliance with routine direction Katz and Kahn 1978 • leadership in a complex adaptive system may affect the organization indirectly, through the mediating variables of and social movement

question

Uhl-Bien,Marion, & McKelvey (2007)

answer

enabling leadership and works to catalyze the conditions in which adaptive leadership can thrive and to manage the entanglement between the bureaucratic (administrative leadership) and emergent (adaptive leadership) functions of the organizations

question

Uhl-Bien,Marion, & McKelvey (2007)

answer

adaptive leadership: adaptive creative, and learning actions that emerge from interactions or CAS as they strive to adjust to tension

question

Uhl-Bien,Marion, & McKelvey (2007)

answer

administrative: refers to the action of individuals and groups, informal managerial roles, who plan and coordinate activities to accomplish organizationally

question

Uhl-Bien,Marion, & McKelvey (2007)

answer

1. informal dynamics is embedded in context 2. distinguish between leadership and leaders leadership: an emergent interactive dynamic that is productive of adaptive outcomes 3. distinguish leadership from managerial positions or offices 4. leadership occurs in the face of adaptive challenges rather tech

question

Marion & Uhl-Bien (2010)

answer

describes emerging complexity perspectives of leadership and explores the differences among these perspectives

question

Marion & Uhl-Bien (2010)

answer

complexity is defined by Convey (2003) as the study of behavior of large collections of simple interacting units, endowed with the potential to evolve with time

question

1800s

answer

Single force Internal qualities Physical, personality, and mental

question

1900s

answer

Leadership emerges as a result of time, place, and circumstances Number of great leaders proportional to number of conflicts engaged

question

1920s

answer

Multiple force Traits, nature of group, event Leadership defined by organizational rank

question

1940s

answer

Leadership can be learned Leader-group relations Not apart fom group but part of group Any member of group can be a leader

question

1960s

answer

Situational variables are considered Behavior is moderated Obstacles along path between subordinates and goals

question

1980s

answer

Dynamic interactive process among individuals in groups Emphasis is on managing environmental cross points

question

2000

answer

Distributed, disperesed, interdependent, embedded in interaction Leadership as learning Global competencies Combine all approaches

question

1841

answer

Heroes Carlyle

question

1879

answer

Hereditary Galton

question

1900

answer

Theory: Classical Management Fayol

question

1909

answer

Theory: Environmental Mumford

question

1911

answer

Scientific Management Taylor

question

1911

answer

Industrial Psychology Taylor

question

1918

answer

Theory: Environmental Bogradus

question

1924

answer

Law of Situation Follett

question

1926

answer

Theory: Trait Bernard

question

1927

answer

Theory: Trait Bingham

question

1928

answer

Theory: Situation Cowley

question

1929

answer

Theory: Trait Tead

question

1930

answer

Behaviorism Skinner

question

1933

answer

Human Relations Mayo

question

1930s

answer

Socio-Technical Bion

question

1940s

answer

Theory: Behavior Ohio State University University of Michigan

question

1946

answer

Organizational Development Lewin

question

1950

answer

Theory: Systems Bertlanffy

question

1953

answer

Group Dynamics Cartwright

question

1955

answer

Theory: Skills Katz

question

1964

answer

Theory: Contigency Fiedler

question

1964

answer

Theory: Motivation - Expectancy Vroom

question

1967

answer

Theory: Contingency Lawerence

question

1968

answer

Theory: Motivation - Goal-Setting Locke

question

1969

answer

Situation Approach Hersey and Blanchard

question

1971

answer

Theory: Path Goal House

question

1975

answer

Theory: Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Graen

question

1975

answer

Teory: Motivation - Intrensic Deci

question

1977

answer

Self-efficacy Bandura

question

1978

answer

Transformational Burns

question

1986

answer

Strategic Leadership Tichy

question

1986

answer

Team Leadership McGrath

question

1990

answer

Systems Thinking Senge

question

1995

answer

Ethics Who?

question

2000

answer

Organizational Learning Schwandt

question

2002

answer

Complex Sciences Griffin

question

2003

answer

Shared Learship Pearce and Conger

question

2006

answer

Intergrative Leadership Yukul

question

2007

answer

Theory: Complex Systems Leadership Hazy

question

2008

answer

Global Leadership Mendenhal

question

Theories

answer

1900 Classical Management; Faoyl 1926 Trait; Bernard 1927 Trait; Bingham 1928 Situation; Cowley 1940s Behavior; Ohio State University; University of Michigan 1950s Systems; Bertalanffy 1955 Skills; Katz 1964 Contingency; Fiedler 1964 Motivation / Expectancy; Vroom 1968 Motivation / Goal-setting; Locke 1971 Path Goal; House 1975 LMX; Graen 1975 Motivation / Intrensic; Deci 2007 Complex Systems Leadership; Hazy

question

Possible Question #2 Design / describe / illustrate the 6th wave of leadership practice using evidence from:

answer

Schwandt and Szabla lead-lag / practice-theory Barley and Kunda oscillation between normative and rational Include Yukl's conceptulization of leadership Individual Dyadic Group Organizational

question

Possible Question #1: Select an approach

answer

conceptual underpinnings core definition key scholars discourse shaping the conversation (convergence/divergence, arguments/agreements) dominant models theories tools core research questions methods/methodologies vulnerabilities and limitations

question

leadership perspectives

answer

as a role a process a meta-capability of organization an emergent phenomenon

question

Foundational theoretical positions / approaches

answer

contingency situation trait transformational/transaction nature v. nurture Behavior Power -influence

question

Contemporary theorectical positions /approaches

answer

shared relational

question

New theorectical positions

answer

Complexity and Interaction Complexity Culture, Values, Ethics, Implications for development.

question

Usefulness of leadership concepts

answer

decision-making leadership development

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