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Educational psychology

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The study of learning and teaching

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Pedagogy

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The study of teaching and learning with applications to the instructional process, the link between what a teacher wants students to learn and the students' actual learning.

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Intentionality

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Doing things for a purpose; teachers who use this plan their actions based on the outcomes they want to achieve

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Teacher efficacy

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The degree to which teachers feel that their own efforts determine the success of their students

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Experiment

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Procedure used to test the effect of a treatment

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Random assignment

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Selection by chance into different treatment groups, intended to ensure equivalence of the groups

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Laboratory experiment

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Experiment in which conditions are highly controlled

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Internal validity

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The degree to which an experiment's results can be attributed to the treatment in question, rather than other factors

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Randomized Field Experiment

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Experiment conducted under realistic conditions in which individuals are assigned by chance to receive different practical treatments or programs

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Experimental group

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Group that receives treatment during an experiment

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Control group

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Group that receives no special treatment during an experiment

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External validity

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Degree to which results of an experiment can be applied to real-life situations

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Single-case experiment

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Experiment that studies a treatment's effect on one person or one group by contrasting behavior before, during, and after application of the treatment

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Correlational study

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Research into the relationships between variables as they naturally occur

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Descriptive research

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Research study aimed at identifying and gathering detailed information about a topic of interest (survey, interview)

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Action research

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Research carried out by educators in their own classrooms or schools (trying out a new teaching method)

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Development

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Orderly and lasting growth, adaptation, and change over the course of a lifetime

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Continues theories of development

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Theories based on the belief that human development progresses smoothly and gradually from infancy to adulthood (rather than hereditary influences)

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Discontinuous theories of development

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Theories describing human development as occurring through a fixed sequence of distinct, predictable stages governed by inborn factors (rather than environment)

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Cognitive development

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Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated

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Schemes

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Mental patterns that guide behavior

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Adaptation

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The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by means of assimilation and accommodation

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Assimilation

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Understand new experiences in terms of existing schemes

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Accommodation

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Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations

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Equilibration

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The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences

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Constructivism

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Emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding of reality

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Reflexes

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Inborn automatic responses to stimuli, building blocks of first schemes

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Object permanence

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Understanding that an object exists, even if it is out of sight

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Conservation

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The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties

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Centration

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Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation

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Reversibility

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The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse one's thinking to return to the starting point

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Egocentric

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Believing that everyone views the world as you do

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Inferred reality

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The meaning of stimuli in the context of relevant information

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Seriation

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Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect

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Transitivity

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Individuals can mentally arrange and compare objects, inferring a relationship between two objects on the basis of knowledge of their respective relationships with a third object

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Sign systems

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Symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate, and solve problems

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Self-regulation

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The ability to think and solve problems without the help of others

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Private speech

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Children's self-talk, which guides their thinking and action (eventually internalized as silent speech)

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Zone of proximal development

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Level of development immediately above a person's present level, can accomplish with the assistance of more competent peers/adults

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Scaffolding

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Support for learning and problem-solving, fade when appropriate

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Cooperative learning

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Peers operate within each other's zone of proximal development and make their inner speech available to talk through a problem together

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Psychosocial theory

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A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development

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Psychosocial crisis

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The set of critical issues that individuals must address as they pass through each of the eight life stages

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Heteronomous morality

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The stage at which children think that rules are un changeable and that breaking them leads automatically to punishment

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Autonomous morality

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The stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishment is not automatic

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Moral dilemmas

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Hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values of right and wrong

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Pro social behavior

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Actions that show respect and caring for others

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Solitary play

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Play that occurs alone

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Parallel play

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Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side, but with very little interaction or mutual influence

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Associative play

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Increased level in the form of sharing, turn-taking, and general interest in what others are doing

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Cooperative play

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Play in which children join together to achieve a common goal

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Self-concept

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A person's perception of his or her own strengths, weaknesses, abilities, attitudes, and values

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Self-esteem

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The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors

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Foreclosure

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An adolescent's premature establishment of an identity based on parental choices, rather than his or her own desires

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Identity diffusion

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Inability to develop a clear direction or sense of self

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Moratorium

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Experimentation with occupational and ideological choices without definite commitment, in the midst of an identity crisis

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Identity achievement

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A state of consolidation reflecting conscious, clear-cut decisions concerning occupation and ideology

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Culture

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The language, attitudes, ways of behaving, and other aspects of life that characterize a group of people

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Socioeconomic status

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A measure of prestige within a social group that is most often based on income and education

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Stereotype threat

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Individuals who know of a stereotype of a group to which they belong are anxious about confirming the stereotype and their anxiety causes them to perform below their real abilities

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English immersion

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Entirely English bilingual education

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Transitional bilingual education

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Taught subject in native language for the first few years

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Paired bilingual education

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Taught subjects in home language and English, usually at different times of day

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Two-away bilingual education

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All students are taught in English and usually Spanish, so english-speaking children learn Spanish and Spanish-speaking children learn English

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Multicultural education

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Education that teaches the value of cultural diversity

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Content integration

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Teacher's use of examples, data, and other information from a variety of cultures

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Knowledge construction

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Helping students understand how the knowledge we take in is influenced by our origins and points of view

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Prejudice reduction

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Development if positive relationships and tolerant attitudes among students from different ethnic and social class groups

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Equity pedagogy

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Teaching techniques that facilitate the academic success if students from different ethnic and social class groups

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Empowering school culture

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A school culture in which the institution's organization and practices are conducive to the academic and emotional growth of all students

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Gender bias

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Stereotypical views and differential treatment of males and females, often favoring one over another

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Behavioral learning theories

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Explanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior

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Social learning theories

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Learning theories that emphasize not only reinforcement but also the effects of cues on thought and of though on action

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Learning

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A change in an individual that results from some experience

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Stimuli

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Environmental conditions that activate the senses

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Unconditioned stimulus

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A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response

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Unconditioned response

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A behavior that is prompted automatically by a stimulus

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Neutral stimuli

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Stimuli that have no effect on a particular response

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Conditioned stimulus

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A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

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Classical conditioning

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The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response

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Operant conditioning

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The use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior

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Skinner box

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An apparatus developed by BF Skinner for observing animal behavior in experiments of operant conditioning

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Consequences

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Pleasant or unpleasant conditions that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors

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Reinforcer

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A pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior

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Primary reinforcer

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Food, water, or other consequence that satisfies a basic need

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Secondary reinforcer

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A consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer

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Positive reinforcer

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Pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior

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Negative reinforcer

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Release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior

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Premack principle

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Rules stating that enjoyable activities can be used to reinforce participation in less enjoyable activities (if you do this, then you may do this)

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Intrinsic reinforcer

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Behaviors that a person enjoys engaging in for their own sake without any other reward

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Extrinsic reinforcer

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Praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not do otherwise

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Punishment

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Unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior

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Aversive stimulus

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An unpleasant consequence that a person tries to avoid or escape

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Presentation punishment

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An aversive stimulus following a behavior used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again

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Removal punishment

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Withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that may be reinforcing a behavior, designed to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again

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Response cost

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Procedure of charging misbehaving students against their free time or other privileges

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Time out

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Procedure of removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced

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Shaping

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The teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal

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Extinction

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The weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn

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Extinction burst

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The increase in levels of a behavior in the early stages of extinction (May return to behavior from time to time)

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors

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Variable-ratio schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors

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Fixed-interval schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time

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Variable-interval schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time

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Maintenance

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Continuation of a behavior (eventually, students will no longer need reinforcement to complete tasks)

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Antecedent stimuli

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Events that precede behaviors

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Cues

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Signals as to which behaviors will be reinforced or punished

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Discrimination

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Perception of and response to differences in stimuli, use if cues, signals, or other information to know when behavior is likely to be reinforced

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Generalization

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Carryover of behaviors, skills, concepts from one setting or task to another

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Modeling

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Imitation of others' behavior

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Observational learning

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Learning by observation and imitation of others

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Attentional phase

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Observational learning in which individuals lay attention to a role model who is attractive/successful/interesting/popular

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Retention phase

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Observational learning phase where an individual models desired behavior and allows practice time

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Reproduction phase

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Observational learning phase where an individual tries to match behavior to the model's

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Motivation phase

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Observational learning phase where an individual models behavior that they believe has the opportunity to be reinforced

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Vicarious learning

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Learning based on observation of the consequences of others' behavior

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Cognitive behavior modification

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Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one's own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction

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Information-processing theory

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Cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind

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Sensory register

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Component of the memory system in which information is received and held for very short periods of time

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Perception

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A person's interpretation of stimuli influenced by mental state, past experience, knowledge, motivation, etc.

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Attention

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Active focus on certain stimuli to the exclusion of others

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Working memory

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The component of memory in which limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds

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Rehearsal

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Mental repetition of information which can improve its retention

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Long-term memory

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The components of memory in which large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time

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Episodic memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores images of our personal experiences, when and where

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Semantic memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores facts and general knowledge, organized in a network of ideas

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Procedural memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores information about how to do things, stored as a complex of stimulus-response pairings

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Flashbulb memory

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Important events that are fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory

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Schemata

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Mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new information

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Levels-of-processing theory

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Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives

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Dual code theory of memory

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Theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways

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Interference

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Inhibition of recall of certain information by the presence of other information in memory

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Retroactive inhibition

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Decreased ability to recall previously learned information, caused by learning new information

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Proactive inhibition

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Decreased ability to learn new information, caused by interference from existing knowledge

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Proactive facilitation

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Increased ability to learn new information based on the presence of previously acquired information

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Retroactive facilitation

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Increased comprehension of previously learned information because of the acquisition of new information

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Automaticity

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A level of rapidity and ease such that tasks can be performed or skills utilized with little mental effort

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Massed practice

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Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time

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Distributed practice

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Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time

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Enactment

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A learning process in which individuals physically carry out tasks

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Generation

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Using learned information to create something new, rather than simply rehearsing existing information

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Verbal learning

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Learning of words, or facts expressed in words

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Paired-associate learning

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Learning of items in linked pairs so that when one member of a pair is presented, the other can be recalled

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Serial learning

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Memorization of a series of items in a particular order

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Free-recall learning

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Learning of a list of items in any order

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Imagery

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Mental visualization of images to improve memory

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Keyword method

answer

A strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items

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Loci method

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A strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations

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Pegword method

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A strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers

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Rote learning

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Memorization of facts or associations that might be essentially arbitrary

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Meaningful learning

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Mental processing of new information that relates to previously learned knowledge

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Inert knowledge

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Learned information that could be applied to a wide range of situations but whose use is limited to restricted, often artificial, applications

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Metacognition

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Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn

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Metacognitive skills

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Methods for learning, studying, or solving problems

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Preconventional stage 1

answer

Obey authority figures to avoid being punished

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Preconventional stage 2

answer

Weight the interests of all parties when making moral judgements, while still looking out for number one

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Conventional stage 3

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Operate under the golden rule, loss of egocentrism

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Conventional stage 4

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Operate under society's rules and laws, breaking the law is unjustifiable

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Postconventional stage 5

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Laws and values of a society are arbitrary, but they see the need of laws to preserve social order and ensure the basic rights of life and liberty

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Postconventional stage 6

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Follow one's own ethical principles that are based on abstract concepts and disobey any laws that violate these principles

Introduction To Educational psychology Chapters 1-6 – Flashcards

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