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Personality

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A person's internally based characteristic ways of acting and thinking. Unique psychological qualities that influence a variety of characteristic patterns of behaviour and ways of thinking that determines a person's adjustment to the environment.

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Conscious mind

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Freud's term for what you are presently aware of

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Preconscious mind

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Freud's term for what is stored in your memory that you are not presently aware of but can access

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Unconscious mind

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Freud's term for the part of our mind that we cannot become aware of.

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Id

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The part of the personality that a person is born with, where the biological instinctual drives reside, and that is located totally in the unconscious mind.

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Pleasure principle

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The principle of seeking immediate gratification for instinctual drives without concern for the consequences

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Ego

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The part of the personality that starts developing in the first year or so of life to find realistic outlets for the id's instinctual drives.

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Reality principle

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The principle of finding gratification for instinctual drives within the constraints of reality (norms of society).

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Superego

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The part of the personality that represents one's conscience and idealized standards of behaviour.

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Defense mechanism

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A process used by the ego to distort reality and protect a person from anxiety.

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Erogenous zone

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The area of the body where the id's pleasure-seeking energies are focused during a particular stage of psychosexual development.

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Fixation

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Some of the id's pleasure-seeking energies remaining in a psychosexual stage due to excessive or insufficient gratification of instinctual needs.

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Oral stage of psychosexual development

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First stage in Freud's theory Birth to 18 months Erogenous zones are mouth, lips, tongue Child derives pleasure from oral activities such as biting, sucking, chewing

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Anal stage of psychosexual devlopment

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Second stage in Freud's theory 18 months to 3 years Erogenous zone is anus Child derives pleasure from stimulation of anal area through having and withholding anal movements

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Phallic stage of psychosexual development

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Third stage in Freud's theory 3 to 6 years Erogenous zone is located at genitals Child derives pleasure from genital stimulation

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Oedipus Conflict

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Freud Phallic stage conflict in which boy becomes sexually attracted to mother and fears his father will find out and castrate him.

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Identification

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Process by which children adopt characteristics of same-sex parent and learn their gender role and sense of morality

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Latency stage of psychosexual development

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Fourth stage in Freud's theory 6 years to puberty No erogenous zone Sexual feelings are repressed and the focus is on cognitive and social development

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Genital stage of psychosexual development

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Fifth stage in Freud's theory Puberty to adulthood Erogenous zone is genitals Child develops sexual relationships, moving towards intimate adult relationships

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Hierarchy of Needs

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Motivation Suggests that the innate needs which motivate our behaviour are arranged in a pyramid shape. From bottom to top: Physiological (hunger, thirst) Safety (feel safe, secure, stable) Belonging and love (to love and be love, belong, be accepted) Esteem (self-esteem, achievement, competence, independence) Self-actualization (live up to potential)

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Self-actualization

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The fullest realization of a person's potential

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Conditions of worth

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The behaviours and attitudes for which other people (starting with parents) will give us positive regard

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Unconditional positive regard

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Unconditional acceptance and approval of a person by others

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Self-system

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The set of cognitive processes by which a person observes, evaluates, and regulates their behaviour

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Self-efficacy

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A judgement of one's effectiveness in dealing with particular situations

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External locus of control

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The perception that chance or external forces beyond your personal control determine your fate

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Internal locus of control

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The perception that you control your own fate.

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Learned helplessness

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A sense of hopelessness in which a person thinks that he is unable to prevent aversive events.

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Attribution

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The process by which we explain our own behaviour and that of others

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Self-serving bias

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The tendency to make attributions so that one can perceive oneself favourably

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Traits

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The relatively stable internally based characteristics that describe a person

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Personal inventory

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An objective personality test that uses a series of questions or statements for which the test taker must indicate whether they apply to him/her or not.

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Projective test

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A personality test that uses a series of ambiguous stimuli to which the test taker must respond about her perception of the stimuli

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Personality Theories

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Type Theories Trait Theories

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Type Theories

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Distinct (no overlap) pattern of personality characteristics - Sheldon Somatotypes - Eysenck - Type A vs. Type B

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Sheldon Somatotypes

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Type theory of personality Based on body types Endomorph - short, plump - sociable, relaxed, even tempered Ectomorph - tall, thin - restrained, self-conscious, fond of solitude Mesomorph - heavy-set, muscular - noisy, callous, fond of physical activity

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Endomorph

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Sheldon somatotype Short, plump Sociable, relaxed, even-tempered

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Ectomorph

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Sheldon somatotype Tall, thin Restrained, self-conscious, fond of solitude

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Mesomorph

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Sheldon somatotype Heavy-set, muscular Noisy, callous, fond of physical activity

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Eysenck

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Type theory of personality Introvert vs. extrovert

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Type A vs. Type B

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Type theory of personality Aggressive when frustrated, impatient, controlling.

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Trait Theories of Personality

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Characteristic patterns of behaviour or conscious motives. Assumed that most traits exist in all people to a certain degree and that we can measure the degree to which a trait exists in a person Thousands of words to describe traits.

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Beauty and the Beast

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In-class example of trait Belle - innocent, intellectual, happy, nice Gaston - arrogant, jerk, narcissistic

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Factors

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Research has shown that various traits tend to cluster (or appear together) in various dimensions (or factors)

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5-Factor Model of Personality

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Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism - tendency to experience negative effects

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Neuroticism

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5-Factor model of personality Tendency to experience negative effects

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Abnormal psychology

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The scientific study of mental disorders and their treatment.

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV)

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The current version of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic and classification guidelines for mental disorders.

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Personality Disorder

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A disorder characterized by inflexible, long-standing personality traits that lead to behaviour that impairs social functioning and deviates from cultural norms.

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Biopsychosocial Approach

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Explaining abnormality as the result of the interaction among biological, psychological (behavioural and cognitive), and sociocultural factors.

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Anxiety Disorders

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Disorders in which excessive anxiety leads to personal distress and atypical, maladaptive, and irrational behaviour.

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Specific Phobia

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An anxiety disorder indicated by a marked and persistent fear of specific objects or situations that is excessive and unreasonable.

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Social Phobia

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An anxiety disorder indicated by a marked and persistent fear of one or more social performance situations in which there is exposure to unfamiliar people or scrutiny by others.

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Agoraphobia

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An anxiety disorder indicated by a marked and persistent fear of being in places or situations from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing.

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Panic Disorder

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An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurrent panic attacks.

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

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An anxiety disorder in which a person has excessive, global anxiety that he or she cannot control, for a period of at least 6 months.

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

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An anxiety disorder in which the person experiences recurrent obsessions or compulsions that are perceived by the person as excessive or unreasonable, but cause significant distress and disruption in the person's daily life.

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Obsession

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A persistent, intrusive thought, idea, impulse, or image that causes anxiety.

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Compulsion

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A repetitive and rigid behaviour that a person feels compelled to perform in order to reduce anxiety.

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Mood Disorders

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Disorders that involve dramatic changes in a person's emotional mood that are excessive and unwarranted.

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Major Depressive Disorder

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A mood disorder in which the person has experienced one or more depressive episodes.

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Major Depressive Episode

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An episode characterized by symptoms such as feelings of intense hopelessness, low self-esteem and worthlessness, extreme fatigue, dramatic changes in eating and sleeping behaviour, inability to concentrate, and greatly diminished interest in family, friend, and activities for a period of 2 weeks or more.

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Manic Episode

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An episode characterized by abnormally elevated mood in which the person experiences symptoms such as inflated self-esteem with grandiose delusions, a decreased need for sleep, constant talking, distractability, restlessness, and poor judgment for a period of at least a week.

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Bipolar Disorder

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A mood disorder in which recurrent cycles of depressive and manic episodes occur.

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Psychotic Disorder

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A disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality.

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Hallucination

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A false sensory perception.

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Delusion

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A false belief.

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Schizophrenia

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A psychotic disorder in which at least two of the following symptoms are present most of the time during a 1-month period: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, disorganized or catatonic behaviour, or negative symptoms such as loss of emotion.

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Vulnerability-Stress Model

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A biopsychosocial explanation of schizophrenia which proposes that genetic, prenatal, and postnatal biological factors render a person vulnerable to schizophrenia, but environmental stress determines whether it develops or not.

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Biomedical Therapy

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The use of biological interventions, such as drugs, to treat mental disorders.

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Psychotherapy

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The use of psychological interventions to treat mental disorders.

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Lithium

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A naturally occurring element (a mineral salt) that is used to treat bipolar disorder.

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Antidepressant Drugs

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Drugs used to treat depressive disorders.

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Neurogenesis Theory of Depression

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An explanation of depression that proposes that neurogenesis, the growth of new neurons, in the hippocampus stops during depression, and when it resumes the depression lifts.

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Antianxiety Drugs

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Drugs used to treat anxiety problems and disorders.

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Antipsychotic Drugs

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Drugs used to treat psychotic disorders.

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Tardive Dyskinesia

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A side effect of long-term use of traditional anti-psychotic drugs causing the person to have uncontrollable facial tics, grimaces, and other involuntary movements of the lips, jaw, and tongue.

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Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

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A biomedical treatment for severe depression that involves electrically inducing a brief brain seizure.

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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

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A neurostimulation therapy in which the left frontal lobe is stimulated with magnetic pulses via an electromagnetic coil placed on the patient's scalp. It is only cleared for use in cases of severe depression for which traditional treatment has not helped.

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Psychosurgery

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A biomedical treatment in which specific areas of the brain are destroyed.

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Lobotomy

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A type of psychosurgery in which the neuronal connections of the frontal lobe to lower brain areas are severed.

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Psychoanalysis

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A style of psychotherapy originally developed by Sigmund Freud in which the therapist helps the person gain insight into the unconscious sources of his or her problems.

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Free Association

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A person spontaneously describes, without editing, all thoughts, feelings, or images that come to mind.

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Resistance

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A person's unwillingness to discuss a particular topic during therapy.

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Manifest Content

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Freud's term for the literal surface meaning of a dream.

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Latent Content

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Freud's term for the underlying true meaning of a dream.

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Transference

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A person undergoing therapy acts towards the therapist as he or she did toward important figures in his or her life, such as his or her parents.

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Client-Centered Therapy

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A style of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers in which the therapist uses unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy to help the person gain insight into his or her true self-concept.

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Behavioural Therapy

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A style of psychotherapy in which the therapist uses the principles of classical and operant conditioning to change the person's behaviour from maladaptive to adaptive.

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Counterconditioning

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A type of behavioural therapy in which a maladaptive response is replaced by an incompatible adaptive response.

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Systematic Desensitization

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A counterconditioning exposure therapy in which a fear response to an object or situation is replaced with a relaxation response in a series of progressively increasing fear-arousing steps.

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Virtual Reality Therapy

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A counterconditioning exposure therapy in which the patient is exposed in graduated steps to computer simulations of a feared object or situation.

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Flooding

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A counterconditioning exposure therapy in which the patient is immediately exposed to a feared object or situation.

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Cognitive Therapy

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A style of psychotherapy in which the therapist attempts to change the person's thinking from maladaptive to adaptive.

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Rational-Emotive Therapy

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A type of cognitive therapy developed by Albert Ellis in which the therapist directly challenges the person's unrealistic thoughts and beliefs to show that they are irrational.

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Beck's Cognitive Therapy

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A type of cognitive therapy developed by Aaron Beck in whcih the therapist works to develop a warm relationship with the person and has the person carefully consider the evidence for his or her beliefs in order to see the errors in his or her thinking.

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Spontaneous Remission

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Getting better with the passage of time without receiving any therapy.

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Criticisms of both Type and Trait theories

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Identify but don't explain how behaviour is caused People are not always consistent in different situations Traits may emerge in more familiar situations No conception of development

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Identify but don't explain how behaviour is caused

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Criticism of type/trait theory Descriptive not explanatory

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People not always consistent in different situations

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Criticism of type/trait theory Punctuality on exam days vs. regular lecture days

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Traits may emerge in familiar situations

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Criticism of type/trait theory When eating dinner at home you may be talkative but at a new girlfriend's house you may be quiet

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Type and Traits

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Give us a way to describe individual differences in behaviour Can be regarded as predispositions to respond in similar situations

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Psychodynamic Theory

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Sigmund Freud Id. superego, ego Stages of psychosexual development

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Sigmund Freud

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Physician from Vienna, Austria Interested in treatment of nervous disorders (hysterical blindness) Adopted "talking cure" though which patients were able to get rid of their symptoms by talking about their problems

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Hysterical Blindness

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Freud Nervous disorder

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Talking Cure

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Freud Patients able to get rid of their symptoms by talking about their problems

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Id, Superego, Ego

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Freud Three parts of personality

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Id

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Unconscious part of personality in which 2 types of instinct reside Life instincts Death instincts Operates on pleasure principle Seeks immediate satisfaction regardless of external considerations

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Life instincts

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Freud Found in Id Unconscious instincts, (eros), reflect a source of energy (libido)

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Death instincts

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Freud Found in id Unconscious instincts Responsible for aggression and destruction

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Pleasure principle

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Id Seeks immediate satisfaction of both instincts (life and death) regardless of external considerations (society's rules or rights of others)

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Iceberg Model

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Relate to Freud's three aspects of personality Id - all below surface Superego - half below, half above Ego - half below, half above

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Superego

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Freud Represents values and morals Just as relentless as Id in trying to get own way Seeks to keep Id in check

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Ego (self)

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Freud Operates on reality principle Balances Id and Superego

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Reality Principle

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Mediating impulsive demands of id and restraining demands of superego with real-life demands of external world

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3 personality parts working together

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Mr X sexually attracted to Ms Y (id) Mr X does not feel that he should have sex (superego) Mr X joins a club that Ms Y is in so he can be close to her (ego)

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Why is it important to prevent unconscious conflicts between the id, superego, and ego becoming conscious?

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To prevent anxiety

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Defense Mechanisms

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Used by the ego Stop unconscious conflicts (between id, superego, ego) becoming conscious Denial Projection Rationalization

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Denial

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Defense mechanism Refusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening reality

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Projection

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Defense mechanism Projecting your anger onto something that can't hurt you

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Rationalization

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Defense mechanism

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Personality Development

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Freud Believed that personality id affected by how a child deals with changes in the focus of the id on different parts of the body as the child grows older

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Psychosexual Development (Psychodynamic Theory)

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Various stages Oral Anal Phallic

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Oral Stage

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Mouth region 0-18 months old

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Anal stage

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Elimination then retention (18 months - 3 years old)

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Phallic stage

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Sexual love towards opposite sex parent (3-6 years old)

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Oedipus Complex

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Family triangle of love, jealousy, and fear which is at the root of internalized morality and out of which grows the child's identification with the parent of the same sex.

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Stages of Oedipus Complex

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Child seeks external object for his erotic urges External object is mum Dad is in the way Fear of dad castrating him (castration anxiety) Throws in the towel, renounces mum and identifies with dad

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Why would a child seek an external object for his erotic urged during the Phallic stage of development?

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He is told that masturbation is bad

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What is the object of a male child's erotic urges during the Phallic stage of development?

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Mum

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Who gets in the way of a male child's erotic urges during the Phallic stage of development?

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Dad

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What is castration anxiety?

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Male child (with erotic urges directed towards mum) fears that dad will castrate him

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How is the Oedipus Complex resolved?

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Boy throws in the towel (due to castration anxiety)--renounces mum and identifies with dad

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Electra Complex

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Phallic stage for girls Named after Greek woman who got her brother to kill her mother.

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Stages of the Electra Complex

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Female decides mum castrated her (penis envy) Hates mum, loves dad Throws in towel, renounces dad, identifies with mum

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Latency Stage

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Freud 4th stage of psychosexual development Ages 6 years to puberty Exploring environment and developing skills No interest in the opposite sex

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What age characterizes the Latency Stage of Psychodynamic Theory?

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6 years to puberty

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What actions characterize the Latency Stage of psychosexual development?

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Exploring the environment and developing skills No interest in the opposite sex

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First stage of Psychodynamic Theory

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Oral

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Second stage of Psychosexual development

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Anal

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Third stage of Psychodynamic Theory

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Phallic

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Fourth stage of Psychodynamic Theory

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Latency

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Fifth stage of Psychodynamic Theory

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Genital

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Genital Stage

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Freud Sexual - puberty

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Why is there a problem if someone becomes fixated at a particular stage of Psychodynamic Theory?

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May cause problems later in life Anal fixation - problems during toilet training can lead to a compulsive, stubborn, stingy person

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Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theory

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Based on what he observed with emotionally disturbed ADULT patients (even though it was concerned with development)

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Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theory

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Constructs are ambiguous, difficult to define or test

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Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theory

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Offer after-the-facts explanations, not predictive

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Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theory

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Sexual conflicts from childhood are not the only cause of personality

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Positive aspects to Freud's thinking

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Emphasis on internal conflict (no doubt that happens to ALL of us)

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Positive aspects to Freud's thinking

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Discussion of sex led to scientific study of sexuality

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Positive aspects to Freud's thinking

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Scope of theoretical contribution: unconscious, symptoms of various disorders, personality, family, development, memory, dreams, language (Freudian slips)

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Humanistic Theories

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Relate to pyramid of human needs Emphasis on fundamental goodness of people and their striving toward high levels of functioning and fulfillment (adapt, learn, grow, excel) Concern with person's perception if him/herself in the present (no emphasis on childhood) Do not like idea of personality being pushed around by internal instincts

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Which personality theory emphasizes the fundamental goodness of people and their striving toward high levels of functioning and fulfillment?

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Humanistic theories

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How do Freud's theories and Humanistic theories differ?

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Emphasis on childhood (Freud does, Humanistic doesn't) Personality shaped by instincts (Freud does, Humanistic doesn't)

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Self-actualization

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Humanistic theories Innate push toward growth with all parts of personality working in harmony

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