History of Art Mid-Term – Flashcards
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What is tufa, and what effect did it have on the construction of Etruscan tombs?
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Tufa is a soft limestone that was used for building one or more subterranean multi-chambered tombs.
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In what way does the Etruscan temple differ from the Greek temple?
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The Etruscan temple is made of wood and rick and has low, deep, overhanging eaves, three cellas, a deep porch, and is entered from the front only. It is also placed on a high podium.
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What is granulation and how is it used?
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Granulation is a goldwork technique in which the artisan applied small grains of gold to a metal surface in order to decorate jewellery.
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How do Etruscan sarcophagi reflect the attitude of Etruscan society?
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The figures repeat the liveliness of the living through facial expression and gestures. They are unique in the ancient world. Their interiors conveyed joyful emotion, suggesting that Etruscans continued the celebration, even in death.
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What was the general mood of the paintings found in earlier Etruscan tombs?
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The mood of early Etruscan tombs was joyful and lighthearted. It was a celebration of life and companionship with depictions of food, wine and dance. It was not a somber contemplation of death.
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What kinds of objects have been found in Etruscan tombs?
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Luxury goods and household objects are found in Etruscan tombs: vases from Greece, jewellery, sarcophagi and furniture.
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Briefly describe the role of women in Etruscan society.
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They were unique in the ancient world. Etruscan women enjoyed relative independence and freedom. They could own property independently. They were educated and could attend banquets with their husbands and other public functions. Their names were acknowledged along with their husbands' names. They commissioned works of art. This relative freedom was an aspect of Etruscan society that horrified and frightened contemporaneous Greek men.
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In depicting human figures, what forms and style did Etruscan sculptors favour?
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Etruscan sculptors favoured the upper half of the figure, especially faces and gesticulating arms. In funereal work the sculptors portrayed the vivacious emotions of the deceased as if still living and enjoying the pleasures of Etruscan life. This portrayal really exemplified the character of the Etruscan.
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What is Roman atmospheric perspective?
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Depth is indicated by the increasingly blurred appearance of objects in the distance.
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What are characteristics of Roman concrete and what effect did it have on building design?
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Concrete is a building material of great tensile strength that allows for enormous flexibility in shaping both interior space and exteriors.
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What is a Roman groin vault?
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A groin vault results from the intersection of two barrel vaults.
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How does a vault differ from a post-and-lintel system?
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A vault allows more flexibility in covering vast interior space, while a post-and-lintel system is limited by the structural elements of uprights and crossbeams. These do not allow great interior open space.
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How did Augustus change the style of portrait sculpture?
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During the Republican years, portraits of elders were the norm. During his reign, Augustus called upon sculptors to produce youthful portraits of the head of state. He understood the powerful political statement of a portrait and used this effectively during his reign, and subsequent generations followed his example.
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How does the Christian community house located in Dura-Europas reflect the state of Christianity within the Roman Empire?
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Before Christianity was legalised, Christians worshipped in modest, privately owned houses. Without the approval of the Roman state Christian and Jewish communities remained small.
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What is the significance of Old St. Peter's?
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Old St. Peter's was the most magnificent of these Early Christian churches. It was constructed on the spot of Peter's grave, or so it was believed. This was a decision made by both Constantine and Pope Sylvester. This church became the visible sign of the acceptance of Christianity by the Empire.
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Explain Old St. Peter's relationship and place in Christendom.
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It is one of the most hallowed sites in Christendom; second only to the church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, the site of the Resurrection. The building itself fulfils the words, "thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church", Peter was the first bishop of Rome and subsequent generations of popes are also the bishop of Rome.
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Why are catacombs significant?
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Most Early Christian art dates from the third and fourth centuries and was found in the catacombs, the Christian burial sites. It is the catacombs which provided the examples of Early Christian art from this period.
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What provoked Roman persecution of the Christians?
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The Romans persecuted Christians for their refusal to pay homage to the official gods of the imperial state and included in that pantheon of gods were the Caesars or emperors.
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Why are there very few depictions of the crucifixion in Early Christian art?
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This depiction was unknown prior to the 5th century. Artists emphasised the divinity of Christ through his life as a teacher and a miracle worker and not his suffering and death at the hands of the Romans. Allusions were made in a number of works about his death, the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus has a segment in which Christ appears before Pilate, the Roman judge and this refers to his coming crucifixion and death.
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The phrase "consequences of iconoclasm" has significant meaning for the history of Byzantine art. Explain the Iconoclasm and its subsequent on Byzantine art.
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It cannot be overstated the damage this period (726-843) had on the art of Byzantium. For 117 years no depictions of Christ, the Virgin, or the saints were allowed. Even more damaging was the concerted effort made by the iconoclasts to destroy countless works from the Early Byzantine period, hence the fragmentary knowledge of this early artistic period.
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Describe the contributions of Justinian during the Early Byzantine period.
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His reign marks the end of the Late Roman Empire and the beginning of the Byzantine Empire. he ambitiously set forth a building program, which defined the Byzantine architectural style henceforth.
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How did the Byzantine emperors refer to themselves and why is this significant?
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They called their empire Romania or Rome. They referred to themselves as Romaioi or Romans but they spoke Greek not Latin. They never relinquished their claim to be the legitimate successors to ancient Rome.
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Describe some of the cultural contributions made by Islam to Western Europe.
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- Christian scholars in the West eagerly studied Arabic translations of the works of Aristotle and other Greek scholars of antiquity during the 12th and 13th centuries. The horseshoe arch, was disseminated via the Crusades and the Spanish Umayyad dynasty. Arabic love lyrics and poetic descriptions of nature inspired French troubadours.Arab scholars contributed to the foundations of arithmetic, algebra, astronomy, and medicine that shaped early Western methods. Islam impacted Western Europe politically, culturally and architecturally.
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What is the Quran?
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The holy book of Islam, codified by Uthman in 7th century. Koran means "recitations" and refers to the instructions or revelations the archangel Gabriel gave to Muhammad in 610 CE. Muhammad was instructed to "recite in the name of Allah." The Koran is composed of 114 surahs or chapters divided into verses.
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Why were monumental tombs virtually unknown in the early Islamic period and how did this change?
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Muhammad objected to elaborate burials, he instructed his followers to bury him in an unmarked grave. Later the Prophet's resting place in medina was enclosed by a wooden screen and covered with a dome. By the 9th century dynastic mausoleums were being constructed, forcefully reminding the viewer of the presence of Islamic power.
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How did the Mongols impact Islamic art?
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By the mid 13th century the Mongols conquered much of the eastern Islamic world. They were truly a formidable military power; their incursions and conquests caused the seat of Islamic power, centred in Baghdad, to be relocated to Egypt. They held sway in the east and the new lords of Islamic power became the Mamluks and Cairo was now the capital of the Islamic world. The Mamluks portrayed the Mongols vividly. The St. Louis basin presents such an image, the Mongols as enemies and the Mamluks as hunters.
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Contrast the Lindau Gospels book cover and the Gero Crucifix.
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The Lindau Gospels book cover presents the Early Christian representation of Christ as a youthful figure. The Gero Crucifix uses the Byzantine formula of a matured bearded Christ figure, showing the drama and blood of the event.
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Why is the date, Christmas Day, 800 significant?
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Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of Rome. The event took place in St. Peter's basilica.
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What is the significance of the term "holy" when applied to Roman Emperor?
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It signifies his Christianity. The title was meant to imply that the holder was the Christian Emperor of Rome, the faith's "capital" in the medieval world.
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Briefly describe the contributions of the Iona Monks.
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They established a monastery in Lindisfarne off the northern coast of Britain. This became a great centre for learning as well as a famous scriptorium.
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What form did much medieval art from this period take and the reception of it changed?
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Most of what art has survived from this period consists of small, portable "status symbols." Items of personal adornment and weapons count among the many objects found. Earlier scholars rejected these items as the minor arts. It is important to recognise that for those living in the Middle Ages these objects were highly regarded.
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What does the term Romanesque mean and why was it first applied to this art historical period?
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It means "Romanlike" and was first applied in the early nineteenth century to describe the elements of European architecture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries that resembled Roman architecture.
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Briefly describe the impact pilgrimage routes had on Romanesque Europe.
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These routes provided increased funding via the pilgrims to the monasteries and churches that held the venerated relics of saints. This increased funding also sparked an enormous investment in ecclesiastical buildings and furnishings in order to reflect "glory of God." It also reflected the competition among the monasteries to provide the most magnificent settings for the displays of the relics.
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How was a pilgrimage a conspicuous feature of public devotion?
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It proclaimed the pilgrim's faith in the power of saints and the hope for their special favour. The pilgrim braved grim roads and conditions as well as perilous routes. Often the pilgrimage became an act of repentance. The greater the distance and the hardships endured became measures of the devotion and sincerity of the pilgrim.
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Briefly describe the factors that contributed to the widespread adoption of stone architecture in the Romanesque period.
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They were a desire to provide a suitably majestic environment for the display of relics as well as competing for pilgrims and their donations. Stone masonry also enhanced the acoustics and created a more spiritual and magnificent atmosphere for the liturgy and the accompanying music.
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What features must a church possess to be considered a "pilgrimage type" church?
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The pilgrimage church increased the length of the nave and doubled the side aisles. The pilgrimage church added transept, ambulatory, and radiating chapels in order to accommodate the increased numbers of pilgrims following the route in order to view the relics.
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How did groin vaults change the weight shift in structures?
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Groin vaults in the tribune galleries as well as in the ground-floor aisles absorbed the pressure of the nave's barrel vault and transferred the main thrust to the thick outer walls.
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What was the essential core value of the work of Romanesque artists, whether they were anonymous of recognised?
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Their work existed not for its own sake but for God's. The artists, recognised or unknown declared if their work had value, it would be an acceptable gift to offer to God. They were not yet aware of the concepts of fine art and fine artists.
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What is a keep?
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A secure tower in the castle that served as a place of last refuge.
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Who was St. Dionysus?
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He brought Christianity to Gaul (France).
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How did the cult of the Virgin impact Gothic society?
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The cult of the Virgin shifted the focus from the severity of the Romanesque to a gentler and more compassionate theme. Worshippers believed the Virgin stood between the sinner and Christ interceding on behalf of the sinner. Great cathedrals were dedicated to her. The tone of society had changed.
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How do stained glass windows function within the context of a cathedral?
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They were not meant to just introduce colour and iconography into the interiors. In the cathedral interior stained glass windows did not conceal walls as frescoes or mosaics did, stained glass windows replaced walls. Light passes through them and is transmitted by them, filtering and transforming interiors. Stained glass windows became one with the architecture and the liturgy.
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Briefly describe humanism.
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A code of civil conduct, a theory of education, the chief concerns of which revolve around human values and interests.
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Why were so many Italian church facades left uncompleted?
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The Italian architect did not consider the facade as an integral part of the structure. They considered the exterior as a mere screen that could be added later at any time.
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How did artists sell their work during this period?
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Artists did not have the same degree of freedom as they do today and they rarely created a work without receiving commission. Generally, a patron contracted the artist for a specific commission.
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Briefly describe the impact of the Black Death in Europe.
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Originating from China, this devastating plague swept across Europe eliminating between 25% and 50% of the population in approximately 5 years. The death toll in the cities was even greater due to the proximity of the populations. It is estimated that as many as 60% died. The Black Death also impacted art. It stimulated religious bequests and encouraged the commissioning of devotional images. The Black Death also led to increased construction of hospitals.
