HDFS Ch 8: Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood – Flashcards

The Developing Self

• The self-concept undergoes major change in early childhood. According to a neo-Piagetian model, self-definition shifts from single representations to representational mappings. Young children do not see the difference between the real self and the ideal self. • Self-esteem in early childhood tends to be global and unrealistic, reflecting adult approval. • Understanding of emotions directed toward the self and of simultaneous emotions develops gradually. • According to Erikson, the developmental conflict of early childhood is initiative versus guilt. Successful resolution of this conflict results in the virtue of purpose.

sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits

cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself

-neo-Piagetian -first stage in development of self-definition -children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics and in all-or-nothing terms

the self one actually is

the self one would like to be

-neo-Piagetian -second stage in development of self-definition -child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all-or-nothing terms

the judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth

-Erikson's third stage in psychosocial development -children balance the urge to pursue goals with reservations about doing so

Gender

• Gender identity is an aspect of the developing self-concept • The main gender difference in early childhood is boys' greater aggressiveness. Girls tend to be more empathic and prosocial and less prone to problem behavior. Some cognitive differences appear early, others not until preadolescence or later. • Children learn gender roles at an early age through gender-typing. Gender stereotypes peak during the preschool years. • Five major perspectives on gender development are biological, evolutionary, psychoanalytic, cognitive, and social learning. • Evidence suggests that some gender differences may be biologically based. Evolutionary theory sees children's gender roles as preparation for adult mating behavior. • In Freudian theory, a child identifies with the same- sex parent after giving up the wish to possess the other parent. • Cognitive-developmental theory maintains that gender identity develops from thinking about one's gender. According to Kohlberg, gender constancy leads to acquisition of gender roles. Gender-schema theory holds that children categorize gender-related information by observing what males and females do in their culture. • According to social cognitive theory, children learn gender roles through socialization. Parents, peers, the media, and culture influence gender- typing.

-awareness that one is male or female -developed in early childhood

behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differs for males and females

socialization process whereby children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles

preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior

1. Biological approach 2. Evolutionary approach 3. Psychoanalytical approach 4. Cognitive approach/Cognitive-developmental theory 5. Gender-schema theory 6. Social learning approach/Social cognitive theory [Table 8.1, pg 258]

-Genetic, neurological, and hormonal activity -Many or most behavioral differences between the sexes can be traced to biological differences

-Charles Darwin -Natural sexual selection -Child develops gender roles in preparation for adult mating and reproductive behavior

-Sigmund Freud -Resolution of unconscious emotional conflict -Gender identity occurs when the child identifies with the same-sex parent

-Lawrence Kohlberg -Self-categorization -Once a child learns she is a girl or he is a boy, the child sorts information about behavior by gender and acts accordingly

-Sandra Bem, Carol Lynn Martin & Charles F. Halverson -Self-categorization based on processing of cultural information -Child organizes information about what is considered appropriate for a boy or a girl on the basis of what a particular culture dictates and behaves accordingly. Child sorts by gender because the culture dictates that gender is an important schema.

-Albert Bandura -Observation of models, reinforcement -Child mentally combines observations of gendered behavior and creates own behavioral variations

-Darwin -gender roles developed in response to men's and women's differing reproductive needs

-Freud -process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex

-awareness that one will always be male or female -aka category constancy

Play: The Business of Early Childhood

• Play has physical, cognitive, and psychosocial benefits. Changes in the types of play children engage in reflect cognitive and social development. • According to Smilansky, children progress cognitively from functional play to constructive play, dramatic play, and then formal games with rules. Dramatic play becomes increasingly common during early childhood and helps children develop social and cognitive skills. Rough-and-tumble play also begins during early childhood. • According to Parten, play becomes more social during early childhood. However, later research has found that nonsocial play is not necessarily immature. • Children prefer to play with (and play more socially with) others of their sex. • Cognitive and social aspects of play are influenced by the culturally approved environments adults create for children.

Play involving repetitive large muscular movements

Play involving use of objects or materials to make something

Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called pretend play, fantasy play, or imaginative play

Organized games with known procedures and penalties

Tendency to select playmates of one's own gender

Parenting

• Discipline can be a powerful tool for socialization. • Both positive reinforcement and prudently administered punishment can be appropriate tools of discipline within the context of a positive parent-child relationship. • Power assertion, inductive techniques, and withdrawal of love are three categories of discipline. Reasoning is generally the most effective and power assertion the least effective in promoting internalization of parental standards. Spanking and other forms of corporal punishment can have negative consequences. • Baumrind identified three parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. A fourth style, neglectful or uninvolved, was identified later. Authoritative parents tend to raise more competent children. However, Baumrind's findings may be misleading when applied to some cultures.

Methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior.

Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior

Disciplinary techniques designee to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness

Disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control.

Disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child.

In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing control and obedience.

In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self-regulation.

In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style blending respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values

• The roots of altruism and prosocial behavior appear early. This may be an inborn disposition, which can be cultivated by parental modeling and encouragement. • Instrumental aggression—first physical, then verbal—is most common in early childhood. • Boys tend to practice overt aggression, whereas girls often engage in relational aggression. • Preschool children show temporary fears of real and imaginary objects and events; older children's fears tend to be more realistic.

Behavior intended to help others out of inner concern and without expectation of external reward; may involve self-denial or self-sacrifice.

Any voluntary behavior intended to help others.

Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal

Aggression that is openly directed at its target

Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being.

Relationships with Other Children

• Most sibling interactions are positive. Older siblings tend to initiate activities, and younger siblings to imitate. Same-sex siblings, especially girls, get along best. • Siblings tend to resolve disputes on the basis of moral principles. • The kind of relationship children have with siblings often carries over into other peer relationships. • Only children seem to develop at least as well as children with siblings. • Preschoolers choose playmates and friends who are like them and with whom they have positive experiences. • Aggressive children are less popular than prosocial children.