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Noun

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A word or word group that is used to name a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

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Compound Noun

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Made up of two or more words used together as a single noun. like a derivitave. It is two words put together to make one word. E.g. toothpaste, seafood, onlooker.

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Common Noun

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Names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas; They are not the names of a single person, place or thing. This type of noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. For example: People like; man, girl, boy, Animals like; fish, ant, snake, Places like; school, city, building, or Ideas like; love, hate, pride.

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Proper Noun

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names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. They are words which name specific people, organisations or places. They always start with a capital letter. E.g. the Civil War, Monday, or Potter.

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Concrete Noun

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Names of an object that can be perceived by one or more of the senses. names things that we experience through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most nouns are are these types of nouns. E.g. Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns. The opposite of this type of noun is an abstract noun.

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Abstract Noun

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Names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic. you cannot sense, it is the name we give to an emotion, ideal or idea. They have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch, smell or taste them. The opposite of this type of noun is a concrete noun. E.g. adoration, dexterity, sadness, wit.

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Collective Noun

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A word that names a group. Is a noun that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things. E.g. Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the collective noun furniture. Could be a Groups of people - army, audience, band, or a Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump., noun that represents a group of persons animals or things family flock furniture ect, names a group of people, places, or things.

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Pronoun

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A word used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns.

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Antecedent

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The word that a pronoun stands for.

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Personal Pronoun

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Refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person).

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Reflexive Pronoun

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Refers to the subject and functions as a complement or an object of a preposition.

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Intensive Pronoun

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Emphasizes a noun or another pronoun.

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Demonstrative Pronoun

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Points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea (this, that, these, & those).

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Relative Pronoun

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Introduces a subordinate clause (who, whom, whose, which, & that).

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Indefinite Pronoun

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Refers to a person, a place, a thing, or an idea that may or may not be specifically named.

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Interrogative Pronoun

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Introduces a question.

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Adjective

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A word used to modify a noun or a pronoun.

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Articles

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The most frequently used adjectives (a, an, & the).

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Demonstrative Adjective

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Modifies adjectives (this, that, these, & those).

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Proper Adjective

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Formed from a proper noun.

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Verb

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A word expresses action or a state of being.

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Helping Verb

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Helps the main verb express action or a state of being.

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Main Verb

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Expresses the action or state of being.

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Auxiliary Verb

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One helping verb.

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Verb Phrase

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A main verb and at least one helping verb.

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Action Verb

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A verb that expresses either physical or mental activity.

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Linking Verb

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Connects the subject to a word or word group.

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Transitive Verb

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Expresses action directed toward a person place thing or idea.

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Object

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Words that receive the action of transitive verbs.

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Intransitive Verb

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Expresses action (or tells something about the subject) without the action passing to a receiver.

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Adverb

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A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

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Preposition

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A word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word.

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Object of the Preposition

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The noun or pronoun that completes a prepositional phrase.

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Compound Preposition

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Preposition that consists of more than one word.

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Prepositional Phrase

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All together, the proposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. , preposition + noun or pronoun, A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. PP-O-M

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Conjunction

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A word used to join words or groups of words.

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Coordinating Conjunction

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Joins words or groups of words that are used in the same way.

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Correlative Conjunction

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pairs of conjunctions that connect words or groups of words.

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Interjection

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Word used to express emotion.

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Subject

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The noun, pronoun, or main phrase that precedes/governs the main verb.

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Predicate

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The verb that expresses the action being performed by the subject; what the noun in the sentence modifies.

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Noun

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A word that can function as the subject of a sentence. Refers to people, places, things, states, or qualities.

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Verb

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A word that expresses action, state, or a relation between two things. Function as the main elements of sentences.

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Adjective

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Modifies a noun; a describing word.

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Adverb

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Modifies a verb or an adjective.

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Pronoun

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Replaces a noun or a noun phrase with a very general reference.

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Preposition

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Links a noun, pronoun, or gerund to other words (direction, time, place, etc.)

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Article

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A word that is linked to a noun and identifies it as such.

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Conjunction

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Connects words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (FANBOYS).

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Appositive

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Follows a noun to add more detail.

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Restrictive appositive

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An appositive that cannot be omitted from a sentence without affecting the meaning.

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Nonrestrictive appositive

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An appositive that is not essential for the sentence to make sense.

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Prepositional phrase

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A phrase consisting of a preposition, its object (usually a noun or a pronoun), and any modifiers of the object. All together, the proposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. , preposition + noun or pronoun, A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. PP-O-M

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Compound subject

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Consists of two or more subjects joined by a conjunction and having the same verb., two or more subjects joined together usually by \"and\" or \"or\" that share a common verb, consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction and that have the same predicate/verb

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Use of a semicolon

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Used to indicate a major division in a sentence where a more distinct separation is felt between clauses or items on a list than is indicated by a comma.

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Expletive

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A swear word OR a word considered as regularly filling the syntactic position of another., a word or phrase conveying no independent meaning but added to fill out a sentence or metrical line

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Infinitive

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The most basic form of a verb; does not specify the subject., the uninflected form of the verb, to + verb, a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.

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Infinitive phrase

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A clause containing an infinitive as its main or only verb form., phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers, consists of an infinitive and its related words, such as modifiers and complements

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Participle

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An adjective that refers to participation in the action or state of the verb; a verbal form used as an adjective. The past form ends in \"-ed\" and the present form ends in \"-ing.\", Verb that can be used as a adjective. *Present ends in -ing*-----*Past ends in ed.-d,-t,-en,-n (The TERRIFYING movie was rated \"R\", a verb form that is used with auxiliary verbs to indicate certain tenses, a type of verb that acts as an adjective

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Diction

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The style of speaking or writing as dependent upon choice of words., the articulation of speech regarded from the point of view of its intelligibility to the audience, clearness of speech

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Tone

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A particular style or manner, as of writing or speech; mood., the quality of something (an act or a piece of writing) that reveals the attitudes and presuppositions of the author, the general atmosphere of a place or situation and the effect that it has on people

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Intensifier

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A word (especially an adverb) that indicates and usually increases the degree of emphasis or force to be given to the element it modifies., a class of words, generally adverbs, used to modify gradable adjectives, adverbs, verbs, or -ed participles, e.g. very, completely, quite.

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Parallel structure

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Using three or more alike elements, separated with commas, in a sentence., structure in which similar forms of nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts. Maintains balance. e.g. \"Lilly likes reading, writing, and skiing\" instead of \"Lilly likes to read, write, and go skiing\"

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Conjunctive adverb

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An adverb that indicates the relationship in meaning between two independent clauses., A type of adverb that creates logical connections between independent clauses which is introduced by a semi colon; and followed by a comma ,. List of them include: Therefore, However, Instead, Rather, Meanwhile, Consequently. Ie... xxxxx; meanwhile, he narrated a film.

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Introductory clause

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A dependent clause that introduces an independent clause., main clause + subordinating conjunction

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Subordination

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Words, phrases, or clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on another., the dependence of one syntactical element on another in a sentence

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Compound predicate

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Tells two or more things about the same subject without repeating the subject., two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.

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Dependent clause

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A group of words with a subject and a verb, but one that cannot stand alone as a sentence., a clause in a complex sentence that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and that functions within the sentence as a noun or adjective or adverb, A fragment

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Independent clause

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A group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate that can stand alone., has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought

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Gerund

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The \"-ing\" form of a verb when functioning as a noun., a form regularly derived from a verb and functioning as a noun

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Antecedent

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A word, phrase, or clause that is replaced by a pronoun or other substitute later in the same (or a subsequent) sentence., the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers, someone or something that went before; something that provides a model for something that came after it

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Nouns and Pronouns

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words that name., A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectiveds or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like \"he\", \"which\", \"none\", and \"you\" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

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Verbs

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words that show an action or state of being.

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Prepositions and conjuctions

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words that connect.

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Adjectives and adverbs

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words that describe or modify., Adjectives describe things (nouns and pronouns) and adverbs describe action (verbs).

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Interjections

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words that show emotion.

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Noun

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a word which names a person, place, object, idea, or quality., a word that can serve as the subject or object of a verb

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Proper Nouns

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name particular people, places, objects, or ideas. They ALWAYS begin with a capital letter!!, Has 2 distinctive features; 1) It will name a specific item. 2) It will start with a capitol letter, no matter where it is in the sentence.

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Common Nouns

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name any person, place, object, or idea., names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas

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Concrete Nouns

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name a person, place, or object that can be sensed through toughing, smelling, tasting, seeing, or hearing., Words for things which are visible and tangible e.g. 'potato', 'house', 'fox', Cookie, pen, pineapples, eyelashes.

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Abstract Nouns

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name a quality, a condition, or an idea. refer to intangible, nonphysical entities. They cannot be sensed through hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, or touching. Represents a feeling and is intangible., Names we have for ideas, emotions, qualities, processes, occasions and times. Invisible and tangible. e.g. 'joy', 'gentleness', 'wedding',

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Collective Nouns

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(nouns of multitude) name a group of persons, places, or objects gathered together into a unit.

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Nouns of Multitude

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another name for Collective Nouns

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Number of Collective Nouns

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singular in the number if the group is considered a single unit.

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Compound Nouns

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made up of two or more words. Some are written as seperate words, some are hyphenated, and some are written as one word., consists of two or more words used together as a single noun that can be separate words, one word, or a hyphenated word.

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Gender of Nouns

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masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common

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Masculine Gender Nouns

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denotes nouns of the male sex., All nouns naming individual male persons., Refers to persons or animals that are male. (He, him, his)

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Feminine Gender Nouns

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denotes nouns of the female sex., includes most words that refer to females. Examples: actress, she, miss

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Neuter Gender Nouns

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denotes nouns with no sex., refers to things, places, ideas, or qualities that are neither male nor female

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Common Gender Nouns

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denotes nouns of either maile or female sex.

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Noun Number

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Singular or Plural

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Singular Noun

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refers to one person, place, object, or idea., shows ownership by one person or thing

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Plural Nouns

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refers to more than one person, place, object, or idea.

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nominative, objective, and possessive.

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3 Types of Cases of the noun

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Nominative Case of the Noun

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subject, predicate noun, noun of direct address., noun in apposition.

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Objective Case of the Noun

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direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition.

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Nominative or Objective Case of the Noun

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noun in apposition.

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Possessive Case of the Noun

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adjective.

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Simple Subjects

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tells who or what is doing the verb., The simple subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that names the person, place, or thing the sentence is about: -The small dog with the red collar is mine., tells who or what is doing the verb.

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Compund Subjects

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consist of two or more words joined by a coordinating conjunction or correlative conjunction., usually plural. may be singular if referring to one unit -\"Ham and eggs is..\"

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Understood Subjects

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occur in imperative sentences, and (you) is the implied subject.

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Predicate Noun

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the who or What... follows a linking verb. Identifies or renames the subject. It is in the predicate part of the sentence and completes the meaning of the verb. It renames, or defines, the subject., a noun that follows a linking verb. It defines the subject by telling what it is.

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Predicate Nominative

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another name for predicate noun.

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How do you find the Predicate Noun?

answer

take the subject and the verb and ask who or what. The answer to the who or what is the predicate noun if its verb is a linking verb.

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Predicate Adjective

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an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject., an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.

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Noun of Direct Address

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a noun used to speak directly to some person or object. ALWAYS separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. Often found in imperative sentences where the subject (you) is understood., the name of the person (normally) who is being directly spoken to ex. Mary, do you..., person being spoken to in a sentence Charlie, don't bite my finger. (Charlie = NDA)

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Direct Object

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a noun which receives the action of the verb. It must complete the meaning of the verb by receiving the action of the verb or by naming the result of the action. **MUST follow an action verb unless the sentence is inverted., the object that receives the direct action of the verb, a word or group of words that name the receiver of the action. Ex. New Yorkers take the subway. (Subway is the direct object), receives the action of a verb. It answers the question whom? or what? after an action verb

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Indirect Object

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a noun that tells to whom or for whom or to what or for what an action is done. It receives the direct object. It comes between the verb and the direct object. It receives the DO and can ONLY appear in the combination with a DO., a word or group of words that tell \"For whom am I doing this wonderful thing.\" It is located between the action verb and the direct object. Ex. Harriet gave her mother a bracelet for her birthday. (Mother is the indirect object.), Comes before the direct object. Tells to whom, for whom the action of the verb is done. (Claire threw JOSEPH the ball)

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To or For

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If the words to or for actually appear before the noun, that noun cannot be an indirect object. In this case the noun is the object of the preposition. \"I mailed to you a copy of the letter.\", acknowledge, What 2 prepositions (in English) go before the noun in an indirect object?

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Object of the Preposition

answer

a noun that relates to another word in the sentence through a preposition., Before setting the table, you should wash your hands. What does the Gerund act as in this sentence

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Prepositional Phrase

answer

the preposition, its object, and its modifiers

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Adverbial phrase

answer

if the prepositional phrase answers when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions., A phrase that functions as an adverb, a linguistic term for a group of two or more words operating adverbially, when viewed in terms of their syntactic function; a phrase that collectively modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a prepositional phrase; a group of words that act like an adverb; is a group of words telling us where, when, how or with whom an action is done

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Adjective Phrase

answer

if the prepositional phrase answers which one, what kind, or how many, and it modifies a noun or pronoun., a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun (begins with a preposition) ex. No one in our class has seen the movie yet. A - in our class

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Introductory Prepositional Phrase

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ALWAYS modifies the verb!!, Throughout the house, an eerie light shone., one or more prepositional phrases at the beginning of a sentence. *things you can do to a box in terms of location

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Steps to find out what the prepositional phrase modifies

answer

1. Locate the preposition 2. Look at the word to the immediate left. 3. What does the prepositional phrase tell about (modify) that word? 4. What question does it answer? ADJ-Noun/ADV-Verb 5. Is it modifying a noun or a verb? 6. If the prepositional phrase does not tell about the word to its left, then look at the verb. **It is always possible to insert the preposition \"to\" or \"for\" before the IO without changing the sense of the sentence.

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Noun in Apposition

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a noun that renames, identifies, or explains the noun it follows. It is set off by commas when it renames a proper noun. Assumes or takes the case of the noun it renames., A noun in apposition is a mini definition - added information in the sentence sometimes set off by commas - 2 kinds of appositions: restricitve (needed; no commas) and nonrestrictive (not really needed; has commas)

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Close Apposition

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when a noun in apposition is closely related to the word it follows. It is not set off by commas.

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Appositive Phrase

answer

a noun in apposition along with its modifiers.

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Possesive Case Noun

answer

shows ownership of another noun. MUST have an apostrophe. It is diagramed as an adjective.

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Parse

answer

to describe a word by stating its part of speech, form, and syntactical relationship in a sentence. To examine closely or subject to detailed analysis, especially by breaking up into components., analyze syntactically by assigning a constituent structure to (a sentence), to separate (a sentence) into parts and describe the funciton of each

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Parsing a Noun

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Part of speech, Kind, Class, Number, Gender, Use, Case,

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common noun

answer

person, place, thing, feeling, idea

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proper noun

answer

specific person, place, thing

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pronoun

answer

word that takes the place of a noun

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action verb

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shows physical or mental action

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linking verb

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1. shows state-of-being 2. does NOT show action 3. links the subject to a noun or ADJECTIVE

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predicate

answer

what the subject is doing; always a verb

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subject

answer

who or what is doing the action in a sentence; always a noun

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sentence

answer

a group of words that express a complete thought; must have a subject and predicate

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compound sentence

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a sentence that properly combines two sentences into one

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compound predicate

answer

two or more predicates for the subject

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compound subject

answer

two or more subjects doing the same predicate

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run-on sentence

answer

two sentences improperly combined into one sentence

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command

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sentence that does not need a subject because the subject is understood to be you - the person being commanded

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conjunction

answer

words that connect clauses, phrases, or words (FANBOYS)

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adjective

answer

describes nouns

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adverb

answer

describes a verb, adjective, or adverb

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verb phrase

answer

helping verb + main verb

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prepositional phrase

answer

preposition + noun or pronoun

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preposition

answer

links a noun or pronoun to the rest of a sentence

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object of the preposition

answer

the noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase

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suffix

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word part added to the end of a word

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prefix

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word part added to the beginning of a word

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plural

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more than one

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What does a subject answer and what part of speech can it be?

answer

Who or what? noun, pronoun, proper noun

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What question does the predicate answer and what part of speech can it be?

answer

What happened to the subject? verb

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What questions do adverbs ask?

answer

How, when, where, to what extent

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What questions do adjectives ask?

answer

What kind? Which one? How many?

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nouns

answer

Name people, places, things, ideas.

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verbs

answer

Show action

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pronouns

answer

Replace nouns

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adjectives

answer

Describe, modify, or limit nouns

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adverbs

answer

Describe, limit or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

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conjunctions

answer

Connect words, phrases, sentences, ideas

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prepositions

answer

Show manner, place, time, condition. Usually in phrases followed by noun or pronoun.

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interjections

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Show emotion, mild or strong

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verbs

answer

Show state of being or condition

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verbs

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Link subjects to complements

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a noun

answer

In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"light\"? The light is on.

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a verb

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In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"light\"? We light the fire with a match.

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an adjective

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In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"light\"? This book is light, not heavy.

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an adverb

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In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"light\"? The light pink color looks nice on you.

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an interjection

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In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"well\"? Well, I don't know the answer.

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a preposition

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In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"at\"? Class starts at 8:00.

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a conjunction

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In this sentence, which part of speech is the word \"when\"? When you graduate, you will get a job.

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Part of speech is determined by

answer

how a word is used in a sentence. A word can be more than one part of speech.

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How many basic parts of speech are there?

answer

8

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Active Voice

answer

the subject performs action in the sentence or is the thing described by a predicate adjective. Ex. John carried the papers to the desk or John is a thoughtful boy.

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join 2 independent clauses

answer

I ran up the hill, but he fell down it.

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separate adjectives

answer

It was a difficult, stubborn animal.

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parenthetical elements

answer

The boy, as slow as ever, marched into class.

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contrasted elements

answer

Playing soccer, not volleyball, requires a lot of running.

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explanatory words

answer

We worked, standing in the hot field, all day.

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appositives

answer

George, my cousin, jumped through a hoop.

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series

answer

I like chicken, beef, and bacon.

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introductory phrase

answer

Before the bell rings, students drink from the water fountain.

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introductory clause

answer

After the team won the championship, they celebrated at Pizza Hut.

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nonrestrictive phrase

answer

The students, trying to pass the test, studied long into the night.

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nonrestrictive clauses

answer

The gym, which was made in 2002, is now the center of the athletic complex.

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set off dates

answer

January 1, 1900, is when Excel begins to calculate dates.

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addresses

answer

The house was located on 342 Ameswood St., Kaneohe, Hawaii 96796.

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dialogue

answer

Bob said, \"Hi.\"

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interjection

answer

Wow, that was amazing.

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Adjective phrase

answer

a prepositional phrase used as an adjective

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Adverb phrase

answer

a prepositional phrase used as an adverb

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Appositive phrase

answer

a noun that renames or clarifies another noun

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Participial phrase

answer

an -ing or -ed verb form used as an adjective

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Gerund phrase

answer

an -ing verb form used as a noun

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Infinitive phrase

answer

to+verb used as an adjective, adverb, or noun

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Absolute phrase

answer

a noun+participle combination grammatically isolated from the sentence

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Adverb clause

answer

dependent clause used as an adverb *begins with a subordinating conjunction

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Adjective clause

answer

dependent clause used as an adjective *begins with relative pronouns or where or when

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Noun clauses

answer

dependent clause used as a noun *begins with relative pronouns or when, where, whether, why, how

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Relative Pronouns

answer

who, whom, whose, which, that

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Subordinating conjunctions

answer

although, as, as if, after, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, though, unless, when, whenever, while

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interruptions

answer

He looked, well, a little dazed.

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numbers

answer

65,000,390

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titles

answer

George, Sr., was 16 when he finished college.

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initials

answer

Bush, George W., was the President of the United States.

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emphasis

answer

\"It may be those who do most, dream most.\" - Stephen Leacock

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clarity

answer

What he does, does make a difference.

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intransitive

answer

verb that does not transfer the action of the subject to a word in the predicate

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transitive

answer

verb that transfers the action of the subject to a word in the predicate

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action

answer

verb that shows action

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grammar

answer

a way of thinking about language

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four levels of traditional grammar

answer

parts of speech, parts of a sentence, phrases, clauses

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parts of speech

answer

the eight kinds of words in English

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noun

answer

the name of a person, place or thing

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pronoun

answer

a word that takes the place of a noun

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subject pronouns (definition)

answer

pronouns used for subjects

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subject pronouns (list)

answer

I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

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object pronouns (definition)

answer

pronouns used for objects

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object pronouns (list)

answer

me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them

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adjective

answer

a word that modifies a noun or pronoun

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the 3 articles

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a, an, the

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definite article

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the adjective \"the\"

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indefinite article

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the adjectives \"a\" or \"an\"

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three degrees of adjectives

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positive, comparative, superlative

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verb

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a word that shows action, being or links a subject to a subject compliment

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conjunction

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a word that joins two words or two groups of words

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coordinating conjunctions

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for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

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subordinating conjunctions

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if, as, since, when, because

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correlative conjunctions

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either and or, neither and nor, not only and but also

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preposition

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shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence

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interjection

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shows emotion but has no grammatical function

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Noun

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A noun is a person, place, thing or idea. Ex. house, bone, grass

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Singular

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grammatical number category referring to a single item or unit. Ex. person, dog, bone

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Plural

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grammatical number category referring to two or more items or units. Ex. people, dogs, bones

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Common

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A type of noun that is not specific; not a name. Ex. dog, dogs, people

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Proper

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A type of noun that is specific; a name. Must be capitalized. Ex. Charlie, Chicago, California

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Collective

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A type of noun that describes a group of nouns as a singular unit. Ex. gaggle of geese, murder of crows

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Apostrophe

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A punctuation mark used to show possession and contractions Ex. life's pleasures, life's good

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Pronoun

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A pronoun takes the position and function of nouns but do not specifically name them Ex. he, she, it, they, him, her, them

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Object Pronoun

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An object pronoun shows the object of a sentence Ex. me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them

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Subject Pronoun

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Subject pronouns show the subject of a sentence Ex. I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

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Possessive Pronoun

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Possessive pronouns show possession Ex. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

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Its vs. It's

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\"Its\" shows possession, but no apostrophe is needed because its is already a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction for it is. Ex. Its own phone, it's a phone

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Antecedent

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The noun or pronoun being replaced by the pronoun in question Ex. Jack did his homework. \"Jack\" is the antecedent because it is replaced by \"his\".

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Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement

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When a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender (boy/girl) and amount (singular/plural). Ex. Jack did his homework. \"Jack\" is singular and masculine, and so is \"his\". If there is not pronoun/ antecedent agreement, the sentence is incorrect

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Adjective

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An adjective describes nouns or pronouns and answers three questions about them: amount, type, and which one is being referred to Ex. blue, seven, high

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Proper Adjective

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A proper adjective is an adjective formed by a noun, but act like adjectives and is always capitalized Ex. American, English, Red Sox

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Articles

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Three adjectives are articles: \"a\", \"an\", and \"the\". The two indefinite articles are \"a\" and \"an\", because when you use them, you are describing a noun or pronoun that is \"indefinite\", or one of many. When you use \"the\", you are describing a specific noun or a \"definite\" one.

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Adverbs

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An adverb describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb and answers three questions about them: how, when, and where Ex. Yesterday, extremely, toward

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\"Good\" and \"Well\"

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\"I did good on that test\" is incorrect because \"good\" is an adjective, but it is describing a verb. \"Well\" should be put instead because it is an adverb and therefore is valid to describe a verb.

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Preposition

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A preposition states position, time, and relationship Ex. above, before, of

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Prepositional Phrase

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A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition, can have adjectives in the middle, and ends with a noun or pronoun Ex. (Polly-O lives) near Kevin's desk

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Verb

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Verbs show action and state of being Ex. run, running, am,

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Tenses

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There are three verb tenses: past, present, and future. Ex. He walked in the park. He walks in the park He will walk in the park

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Action Verb

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Action verbs show action Ex. He smells

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Linking Verb

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Linking verbs link nouns to adjectives Ex. He smells like fish

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Conjugation of Verb: to be

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I am You are He is She is it is We are You are They are One is

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Conjunction

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Conjunctions join together clauses, words, sentences, phrases Ex. after, although, as, because, before, even though, rather than, if

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Coordinate Conjunction

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Joins independent clauses and equals together Ex. for, and, yet, so, but, or

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Subordinate Conjunction

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Joins dependent clauses together Ex. after, although, as

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Conjunctive adverbs

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Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that behave like conjunctions but are punctuated differently Ex. however, therefore

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Interjections

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Interjections are words that express emotion and are separated from sentences by punctuation Ex. Hey, No, Yes

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Mild Interjections

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Mild interjections show relatively low amounts of emotion and are punctuated with commas Ex. Hey, do your homework

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Extreme Interjections

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Extreme interjections show relatively large amounts of emotion and are punctuated with an exclamation mark Ex. Hey! Do your homework

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Direct Address

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A noun which interrupts like an interjection because it names the person being talked to: It can be mild or extreme and will be punctuated accordingly Ex. Chris, do your homework Chris! Do your homework!

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linking

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verb that links the subject with the predicate

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concrete

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noun that can be perceived by any one of the senses

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compound

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Mother-in-law, skyscraper, Eiffel Tower: two or more nouns put together

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proper

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noun that names a specific person place or thing that begins with a capital letter

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common

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noun used often and is usually not capitalized

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relative

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pronoun that introduces a subordinate clause

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possessive

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pronoun that shows ownership

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a, the, an

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commonly used articles

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article

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most commonly used adjectives

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abstract

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noun that names a feeling, quality, or idea

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noun

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person, place, thing, idea

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adjective

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describes or modifies a noun or pronoun

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personal

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pronoun that names the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken about,

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interrogative

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pronoun that introduces a question

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intensive

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pronoun that emphasizes a noun or another pronoun and is not needed for the meaning of the sentence. ends in -self or -selves.

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reflexive

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pronoun that refers to, or reflects on, the subject of the sentence and ends in -self or -selves. necessary to the meaning of the sentence

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indefinite

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pronoun that may or may not be already named

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helping

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verb that helps the main verb express action or a state of being

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verb phrase

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something that contains one main vern and one or more helping verbs

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adjective questions

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what kind, which one, how much, how many

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demonstrative

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THAT book is the best book I have ever read!

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nouns and pronouns

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other parts of speech that can be used as adjectives

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adjectives, adverbs, verbs

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parts of speech that adverbs modify

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adverb questions

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when, where, how, to what degree

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conjunction

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links words or groups of words

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interjection

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expresses strong emotion or surprise

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preposition

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relates a noun or pronoun to another word

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pronoun

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takes the place of a noun

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infinitive

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\"to\" followed by the base form of a verb

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gerund

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ends in -ing and is used as a noun

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appositive

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phrase that identifies or gives more information about the subject

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clause

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group of words with a subject and a predicate

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independent, main

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clause can stand alone as a complete sentence

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dependent, subordinate

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clause has a subject and predicate, but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence

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adjective

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clause modifies a noun or pronoun

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adverb

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clause modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb

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logical order

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pattern of organization used for an expository essay

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ideas

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trait of good writing that is concerned with the topic and the information you will include

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word choice

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trait concerned with using specific nouns and vivid verbs

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sentence fluency

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trait has to do with sentence length and varied beginnings

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spatial

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pattern used for an essay about the structure of a cell

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voice

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trait concerned with the personality of the writer

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chronological

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pattern used for a narrative essay

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organization

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trait concerned with the order in which you present your ideas

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compare/contrast

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pattern used for an essay about the beliefs of one program versus the beliefs of another

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complement

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word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb

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noun or pronoun

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part of speech usually a direct object

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direct object

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sentence with an indirect object has a...

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direct object

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receives the action of the verb

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adverb

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part of speech never is a complement

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direct object questions

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what, whom

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sentence

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expresses a complete thought; example: My father travels around the country.

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in

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already inside

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into

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tell about the movement from the outside to the inside

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between

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for two

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among

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three or more

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different from

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to tell about differences

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of

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do not use in the place of \"have\"

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declarative

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sentence that makes a statement; uses a period; example: Janelle is painting a picture of an imaginary place.

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interrogative

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sentence that asks a questions; uses a ? mark; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene?

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imperative

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sentence gives a command; uses a period; example: Think about all the uses for artwork.

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exclamatory

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sentence expresses strong feeling; uses an ! point; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene!

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four kinds of sentences

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declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory

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Include a ____ and a predicate in every sentence.

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subject

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Use a ____ and a subject in every sentence.

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predicate

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subject

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whom or what the sentence is about; example: One PERSON described her experience.

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predicate

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tells something about the subject; example: One person DESCRIBED HER EXPERIENCE.

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complete subject

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all the words in a subject; example: MY TWO OLDER BROTHERS stared at me silently.

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simple subject

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is the main word or words in a subject; example: My two older BROTHERS stared at me silently.

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Sometimes the complete ____ and simple ____ are the same; example: XAVIER stared at me silently.

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subject

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complete predicate

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all the words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING A SECRET.

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simple predicate

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is the main word or words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING a secret.

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Sometimes the complete ____ and simple ___ are the same; example: Everyone SMILES.

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predicate

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compound subject

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two or more simple subjects with the same predicate; example: JON congratulated the actress. STACY congratulated the actress. --> JON and STACY congratulated the actress.

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compound predicate

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two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.

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compound sentence

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combines two or more simple sentences; can be joined by a comma and connecting words such as AND, OR, or BUT...or by a semi-colon; example: A crater can be formed by a bomb, or it can be formed by meteorite.

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conjunction

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joins a words or groups of words; can be AND, OR, or BUT; can be used to combine sentences; example: Janet lives in Austen, AND Elizabeth lives in New York.

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interjection

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a word or a group of words that expresses strong feeling; you can separate an interjection from the rest of a sentence with either an exclamation point or a comma, depending on the strength of the feeling; examples: Whew! That was close! Oh, no!

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fragment

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does not express a complete thought; example: Tells an interesting story.

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run-on sentence

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strings together two or more sentences without clearly separating them; example: This picture is his it is not yours.

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expanded

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adding details to sentences to make them more clear and more interesting

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phrase

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a group of words that work together; example: from the kitchen window

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clause

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a group of words that have a subject and a predicate; some stand alone; others cannot; example: Everyone should know about medical emergencies.

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independent clause

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expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a simple sentence

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dependent clause

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contains a subject and a predicate, but doesn't express a complete thought or stand alone; example: AFTER THEY LEARNED ABOUT TOXIC WASTE.

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complex sentence

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consist of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause

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subordinating conjuction

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AFTER, IF, SINCE, UNTIL, WHETHER, or WHEN connects the two clauses into one sentence; example: The senators left the capitol AFTER THE SESSION WAS ADJOURNED.

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indirect object

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is a noun or a pronoun that follows an action verb; example: The vet sent ME a reminder to bring my dogs in for their shots.

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appositive

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a noun that identifies or explains the noun or pronoun it follows; usually set off by commas; example: Robert Miller, the JUDGE, sentenced the criminal to prison.

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predicate nominative

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noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Susan B. Anthony was an early FEMINIST. (noun) / It was SHE who led the woman's suffrage movement to victory. (pronoun)

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compound predicate nominative

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Predicate nominatives sometimes contain more than one noun. These are called ____. example: Mahatma Ghandi was a Hindu religious LEADER and a social REFORMER in India.

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predicate adjective

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an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of a sentence; example: A freshly baked pie is DELIGHTFUL to the eye and nose.

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compound predicate adjective

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Predicate adjectives sometimes contain more than one adjective. These are called ____. example: The job applicant seems HONEST and RELIABLE.

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direct object

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a noun or pronoun that follows an action verb; they tell or what receives the action; example: I inherited a pet DEER from the former residents of my house. (tells what) or The surgical team asked DR. HABIB to explain the procedure. (tells who)

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noun clause

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subordinate clause used as a noun; examples: WHAT YOU SAY is true.

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participle

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used as an adjective; it is a form of a verb used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun; example: The RUNNING water was moving dangerously fast.

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participial phrase

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contains a participle and acts as an adjective; examples: They arrested the man DRIVING THE CAR.

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gerund

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verb + ing used as a noun; example: SWIMMING is a good exercise.

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gerund phrase

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consist of a gerund and related words; example: SWIMMING IN THE LAKE is a good exercise.

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infinitive

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present tense of a verb preceded by the word TO; it may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; example: TO EXERCISE is a healthful habit.

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dangling participle

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To correct a ____, place the participial closer to the word it modifies; example: (incorrect: PLAYING SOLITAIRE, at the table sat a bored young man. / correct: At the table sat a bored young man PLAYING SOLITAIRE.)

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split infinitive

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use an adverb to avoid these; example: (incorrect: I wanted to SLOWLY SEE the city. / correct: I wanted TO SEE the city SLOWLY.)

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modifier

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Place a ___ as close to the word it describes; example: (incorrect: The man looks like a spy WITH THE HAT. / correct: The man WITH THE HAT looks like a spy.)

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subordinate clause

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contains a subject and a predicate, but does not express a complete thought, and cannot stand alone; often begins with a subordinating conjunction, such as AFTER, ALTHOUGH, BECAUSE, BEFORE, IF, SINCE, WHEN, or WHILE; example: People became more sensitive to pollution problems AFTER THEY LEARNED ABOUT TOXIC WASTE.

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adjective clause

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modifies a noun or a pronoun; majority of these clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, WHICH, and THAT; example: She lost the ring THAT YOU GAVE HER.

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nonrestrictive clause

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is descriptive or explanatory and can be omitted without changing the essential meaning; example: My father, WHO WAS COACHING THE BASEBALL TEAM, met us at the ballpark.

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adverb clause

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is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb

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Passive Voice

answer

the action is performed by an unknown agent. Ex. The papers were carried to the desk.

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Degrees of Adjectives

answer

Base (1) Ex. High, Thick, Beautiful, Bad; Comparative (2) Ex. Higher, Thicker, More Beautiful, Worse; Superlative (3 or more) Ex. Highest, Thickest, Most Beautiful, Worst

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Personal Pronoun

answer

takes the place of a name of a person, place, or thing. 1st person- I, me, my mine; 2nd person- You, your, yours; 3rd person- He, him, his, she, her, hers, they, them, theirs, we, us, ours, it is, who whom

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Relative Pronoun

answer

used to relate to another noun in the sentence Ex. The chef WHO won the proze studied in Paris Who, whom, whoever, whomever, that, which

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Indefinite Pronoun

answer

refers to an unknown person, place, or thing. Another, anyone, anything, each, neither , no body, someone, something, both, few, many, serval, all, most, none, some

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Demonstrative pronoun

answer

points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea Ex. THAT car is the one I want. This, that, these, those,

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Interrogative Pronoun

answer

used to ask a question Who, whom, which, what, whose

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Reflexive Pronoun

answer

refers back to the person to whom the pronoun refers, usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves

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Simple Present Tense

answer

verb tense that describes present action or condition. Ex. Hear, Play Run

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Present Progressive Tense

answer

verb tense that shows action in progress. Ex. Am hearing, Is playing, Are running

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Simple Past Tense

answer

verbe tense that shows completed action Ex. Heard, played, ran

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Past Prgressive Tense

answer

verb tense that shows past action that took place over a period of time. Ex. Was hearing, Were playing, Was running

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Future Tense

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verb tense that shows an action that will or will not happen in the futrure. Ex. Will hear, Won't play, Will runn

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Present Perfect Tense

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verb tense that describes an action that began in the past but continues til the present. Ex. Have heard, Has played, Has run

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Past Perfect

answer

verb tense that describes an event completed in the past prior to another event. Ex. Had heard, Had played, Had run

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Present Perfect Progressive Tense

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verb tense to describe an action that began in the pas, continues to the present and may continue into the future. Ex. Has been hearing, Have been playing, Has been running

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Future Perfect Tense

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verb tense to express an action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future. Ex. Will have heard, Will have played, Will have run.

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Comparative Adjective

answer

adjectives used to compare two things. Usually using the suffix -er and the word 'than'. i.e. faster than or slower than

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Superlative Adjective

answer

The extreme degree of comparison of adjectives. Used when comparing three or more things. Usually using the suffix -est, or the word 'most'. i.e. most beautiful, or highest

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Demonstrative Pronouns

answer

Pronouns that point to specific things. i.e. this, that, there, and those. (this, these refer to things near the speaker. that, those refer to nouns further away)

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Possessive Pronouns

answer

Pronouns that attribute ownership. i.e. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

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Active Voice

answer

The subject performs the action denoted by the verb. i.e. the cat eats the fish.

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Passive Voice

answer

One can change the normal order of a sentence so that the subject is being acted upon. This voice may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. i.e. fish are eaten by the cat.

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Declarative Sentence

answer

A sentence stating a fact or argument without requiring response. It makes a statement and ends in a period.

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Interrogative Sentences

answer

Sentences that ask a direct question. Always ends with a question mark.

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Exclamatory Sentences

answer

Sentences that end with an exclamation point.

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Imperative Sentences

answer

Sentences that give direct commands to someone. Can end with a period or an exclamation point.

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Simple Present

answer

They walk. Occasionally used to talk about scheduled events in the near future, i.e. the train leaves tonight at 6.

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Present Perfect

answer

They have walked. Consists of a past participle with \"has\" or \"have.\" It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present.

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Simple Past

answer

They walked. Used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.

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Past Perfect

answer

They had walked. Designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

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Future

answer

They will walk. \"will\" or \"be going to\".

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Future Perfect

answer

They will have walked. Designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.

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3 types of sentences

answer

Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative

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Declarative sentence

answer

Makes a statement.

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Interrogative sentence

answer

Asks a question.

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Imperative sentence

answer

Gives a command or makes a request.

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4 sentence structures

answer

Simple Compound Complex Complex-compound

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Simple sentence

answer

Sentence that has a subject and a verb

question

Compound sentence

answer

Made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating (and, but, for, or, so, yet) or correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) conjunction or a semicolon.

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Independent clause

answer

Clause that contains both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.

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Complex sentence

answer

Contains a dependent clause and an independent clause. Ex: Because I do not feel well, I will not be attending the concert.

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Dependent clause

answer

Contains a subject and a verb and does NOT express a complete thought.

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Complex-compound sentence

answer

Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ex. I am going to town, and Bill is going when he gets his car repaired.

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Run-on sentence

answer

Several thought incorrectly joined are not grammatically correct. Ex. I like to ice skate my brother does not.

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Sentence fragment

answer

An incomplete thought is not grammatically correct. Ex. Making his way in the world today.

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8 Parts of speech

answer

Noun Pronoun Verb Adjective Adverb Conjunction Preposition Interjection

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Noun

answer

A person, place, thing, or idea.

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Pronoun

answer

A word that can replace a noun. Ex. I, you, who, one, any, myself...

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8 Types of Pronouns

answer

Personal Relative Interrogative Demonstrative Indefinite Reciprocal Intensive Reflexive

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Personal pronouns

answer

I, you, she, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, my, mine, me, your, yours, her, hers, its, our, ours, us, their, theirs

question

Relative pronouns

answer

who, whom, whose, what, which, that

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Interrogative pronouns

answer

who, what, when, where, how

question

Demonstrative pronouns

answer

this, that, these, those

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Indefinite pronouns

answer

one, any, each, anyone, somebody, all...

question

Reciprocal pronouns

answer

each other, one another

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Intensive pronouns

answer

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

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Verb

answer

A word or phrase (was writing, has been sewing) that shows action (writing, sewing) or a state of being (is, are, am, was, were).

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Transitive verbs

answer

May take a direct object: Bob BEAT the rug. Some can be used as active or linking verbs

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Intransitive verbs

answer

Do not require an object: The chorus WAS SINGING as they entered the building.

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Active verb

answer

Expresses action done by its subject: Jane FELT the prickly bush.

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Linking verb

answer

Verb followed by an adjective: Bill FELT dizzy.

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Adjective

answer

Modifies or limits a noun or pronoun. Answers the questions which one, what kind, and how many.

question

8 types of adjectives

answer

Descriptive Limiting Possessive Demonstrative Interrogative Articles Numerical Comparative and Superlative

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Descriptive adjective

answer

Names a quality of an object: BLUE notebook

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Limiting adjective

answer

Restricts the meaning or indicates quantity or number.

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Possessive adjective

answer

HER jacket, THEIR house...

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Demonstrative adjective

answer

THIS automobile

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Interrogative adjective

answer

WHICH cat belongs to you?

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Articles

answer

A, AN, THE

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Numerical adjectives

answer

ONE ticket, SECOND half of the game

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Comparative and Superlative adjectives

answer

BIGGER house, ROUNDER shape, HOTTER weather BIGGEST house, ROUNDEST shape, HOTTEST weather

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Adverb

answer

A word that limits or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. Herman walks QUICKLY. Jane colors VERY WELL. Billy out the cat OUTSIDE EARLIER. (OUTSIDE modifies \"put\" with regard to location; EARLIER modifies \"put\" with regard to when it happened)

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Preposition

answer

Relates a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. (Anywhere a squirrel can go)

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Prepositional phrase

answer

The preposition and its object form a _____________. Ex. Bill drew a circle AROUND THE SUBJECT. (AROUND is the preposition, SUBJECT is the object of the preposition)

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Conjunction

answer

A word that may connect words, phrases, and clauses.

question

Coordinating conjunction

answer

Joins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

question

Subordinating conjunction

answer

Join subordinate clauses with main clauses: although, after, because, if... BECAUSE he was better, Billy went home from the hospital. (\"Billy...hospital\" is the main clause; \"Because...better\" is the subordinate clause.

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Interjections

answer

Words inserted to show emotion: Wow!, Ouch! Hey!

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Modifiers

answer

May describe or limit the meaning of a word or group of words.

question

Both adjectives and adjective phrases or clauses can...

answer

modify a noun

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Both adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses can...

answer

modify a verb

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Phrase

answer

A group of words without a subject and predicate. It can function as a noun, ,an adjective, an adverb, or a verb. They may be prepositional, participial, gerunds, infinitives, and verbs.

question

Prepositional phrase (adverb)

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The team ran ACROSS THE FIELD. (_____used as _____)

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Participial phrase (adjective)

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The horse WINNING THE RACE belongs to me. (_____ used as _____)

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Gerund phrase (noun and subject of the sentence)

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WRITING THE BOOK was a pleasure. (_____ used as _____)

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Infinitive (noun and subject of the sentence

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TO WALK was his goal. (_____ used as _____)

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Clause

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Contains a subject and a verb. It may be independent or subordinate (dependent).

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Do not capitalize

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systems of government or individual adherents to a philosophy; compass directions or seasons

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When to use a comma

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1. In a series 2. With a long introductory phrase (not a short phrase, unless it includes a verb form being used as another form of speech: \"When eating, Mary...\" or \"Having decided to leave, James...\") 3. To separate sentences with two main ideas 4. To separate an introductory subordinate clause: \"Whenever I can, I try to...\" 5. To slow the flow of the sentence: appositives, interjections, direct address, tag questions, geographical names and addresses, transitional words and phrases, parenthetical words and phrases, unusual word order) 6. With nonrestrictive elements 7. To set off direct quotations or contrasting elements. 8. In dates

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Nonrestrictive elements

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A word or group of words that are not vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are set off by commas: My sister, THE GIRL WHO WROTE THE STORY, has always loved to write.

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Restrictive elements

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A word or group of words that are vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are NOT set off by commas: The girl WHO WROTE THE STORY is my sister.

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Contrasting elements

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Her intelligence, NOT HER BEAUTY, got her the job. Your plan will take you a little further from, RATHER THAN CLOSER TO, your destination. It was a reasonable, THOUGH NOT APPEALING, idea.

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Semicolons

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Use this punctuation to 1. Separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction 2. Separate independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb 3. Separate items in a series with internal commas

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Conjunctive adverbs

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accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps, still, therefore...

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Colon

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Signals the reader that a list, explanation, or restatement of the preceding will follow. It is like an arrow, indicating that something more is to come. Information preceding this mark should be a complete sentence.

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Descriptive Grammar:

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describes a language - the way that people use it - w/out judging whether the utterance is correct or incorrect

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Prescriptive Grammar:

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concerned with correct usage

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Gerund:

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verb with -ing attached to it - functions as a noun e.g.: I like running. Thinking is my favorite thing to do.

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Antecedents:

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the person or thing that defines the pronoun in a sentence e.g.: Joe worked in the post office and he enjoyed it. (Joe is the antecedent.)

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Interrogative pronouns:

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Who are those people? Whose dog is that? Whom is she speaking to? What are they doing? Which one should I buy?

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Demonstrative pronouns:

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That is a nice suit. This is a nice suit. These are fine shoes. Those are fine shoes.

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Indefinite pronouns:

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Everyone is here. Everybody is here. No one is here. Nobody is here.

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Transitive verbs:

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require an object e.g.: Chris writes books in the morning.

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Intransitive verbs:

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e.g.: sleep (Sleep cannot be transitive.)

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Infinitive form of a verb:

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to be, to walk, to see e.g.: I need to work today. I like to work on writing

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Predicate adjectives

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when adjective follows a state of being verb e.g.: He looks sick. He seems tired. She is joyful. She is nice.

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Adverbs

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answer: how (sloppily), where (here, there) , to what degree (very, hardly), when (now, later, yesterday) e.g.: The cat runs here and there. I painted the house neatly. I am very happy. I want it finished now.

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Conjunctions:

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Coordinating Correlating Subordinating and, but, nor, for, or either/or both/and neither/nor when since because

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Appositive phrases:

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are offset with commas, further describe nouns eg: Mr. Dobbs, our teacher, is here. That car, a brand new Toyota, is what I want.

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Simple

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Sentence Types: Simple sentences are straightforward.

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Compound

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Sentence Types: One sentence contains a subject and verb, and the second sentence contains another subject and verb.

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Sentence Types: Complex

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If the sentence has an independent clause and a dependent clause, it is complex.

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Compound-Complex

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Sentence Types: If the sentence has two independent clauses and a dependent clause, it is compound and it is complex.

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Determiners, Determiner

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term for an element preceding a noun in a noun phrase. EXAMPLE: the, that, two, a, many, all, etc.

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Determiners: Definite determiners

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include the definite article the, demonstratives (this, those, etc.), possessives (his, John's), question words (which), and quantifiers (all, etc.)

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Determiners: Indefinite determiners

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include: a(n) and numerals like two, and many.

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Determiners: Article:

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class of determiners that identify a noun's status. (The, A, An)

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Determiners: Demonstrative:

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a determiner used to indicate spatial, temporal, or discourse location. It functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun. Examples: These Those, This, That

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Determiners: Quantifier:

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a determiner that expresses a number or amount - functions as a modifier of a noun or pronoun. Examples: All (All are welcome; All these people) Five, Many, Some

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Determiners: Examples

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Examples with determiner phrases in italics: a little dog, the little dogs (indefinite or definite article) this little dog, those little dogs (demonstrative) my little dogs, their little dog (possessive adjective) Sheila's little dog, the Queen of England's little dog (noun phrase + 's) every little dog, each little dog, some little dog, either dog (quantifying)

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Modal Verbs

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Modal verbs behave very differently from normal verbs. A good way to remember them: You use \"not\" to make modal verbs negative. EXAMPLE: He should not be late.

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Common Modal Verbs:

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Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Ought to, Shall, Should, Will, Would

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Nonstandard (American English)

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pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar that differs from what is in dictionaries and prescriptive handbooks

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Standard American English (SAE)

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a variety of American English that is widely shared by middle class, urban, educated speakers and most closely resembles the written form of language taught in schools

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Standard Written English

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the edited variety of language appropriate for use in writing; also known as Standard Edited English

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Communicative Competence

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the ability to use a language appropriately for a variety of social and cultural circumstances

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Linguistic Competence

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a speaker's knowledge of the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of a particular language

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Textual Competence

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the ability to use language for a variety of purposes, such as stories, conversations, and letters

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pragmatic competence

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the ability to use language in interpersonal relationships, taking into account such complexities as social distance between speakers and an indirectness required in a given situation

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dialects

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a variant of a language spoken by a group of people sharing the same time (historical period) or space (geographical or social environment)

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regional dialects

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a form of speech associated with a geographic area or region

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social dialects

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a form of speech used by a group within a society characterized especially by the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and/or gender of the speakers

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hypercorrection

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an attempt to be overly \"correct\" resulting in the production of language different from the standard (\"between Harlan and I\" instead of \"between Harlan and me\")

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interlanguage

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the language form produced by speakers acquiring a second language that combines linguistic features from both their native and their new languages

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developmental errors

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errors made when learning a language based on the speaker's incorrect inference of grammatical rules, for example in acquiring English a learner may say \"he goed\" instead of \"he went\"

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transfer errors

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errors made when acquiring a second language in which a speaker substitutes features of the native language in the new language (ex. an Italian speaker saying \"he has cold\" for the English \"he is cold\"

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linguistic insecurity

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an anxious desire to be correct sometimes felt by speakers who believe their language does not always conform to SAE

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style

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variation in language use based on the formality or informality of the social setting

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informal style

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a speech used in casual settings, among friends, etc.

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formal style

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the language used in public speech, such as lectures, sermons, writing, and political addresses

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style shifting

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when the speaker adapts language use to the formality or informality of the situation (\"goodbye\" as opposed to \"see ya!\"

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adjective

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a form-class word (describe or modify another person or thing in a sentence)

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adverb

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a form-class word (modifies any part of language other than a noun)

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form

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denotes the part of speech of a word or the makeup of a grammatical structure

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form class

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the set of words capable of changing form through the addition of inflectional and derivational morphemes

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frame sentence

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a sentence with an empty slot in the position typically occupied by a member of a particular form class

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function

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the role a word or phrase plays in a sentence

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gender

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the classification of English nouns and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter based on the sex of the person or thing referred to or on the conventional alignment of sex to inanimate objects

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gerund

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a verb having the {-ing} inflection and functioning as a nominal phrase

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grammatical feature

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a characteristic of a subclass of words that determines how it may be used

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noun

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a person, place, thing or idea

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verb

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a word that shows action or state of being

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pronoun

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takes the place of a noun; he, she, you, I, me

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adverb

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describes a verb; typically ends in ly

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adjective

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describes a noun

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direct object

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follows a transitive verb (active verb); can be nouns, pronouns; a simple formula is subject + verb+ who? what = direct object

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indirect object

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the noun or pronoun that receives the direct object

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verb transitive

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ALWAYS an action verb; is typically followed by a direct object

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verb intransitive

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ALWAYS a linking verb; is typically followed by a predicate adjective or predicate noun; acts like an equals sign

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preposition

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links nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence

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prepositional phrase

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gives a sentence detail; begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun

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conjunction

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links words, phrases and clauses FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

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interjection

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added to a sentence to convey emotion

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clause

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must have a subject and a verb; 2 types of clauses - independent and dependent

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gerund

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verb acting like a noun; ends in -ing

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participle

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verb acting like an adjective ends in -ing or -ed

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lexicon

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the complete stock of words known by any speaker

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modifier

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a word or phrase whose function is to give grammatical or lexical information about another word in the sentence

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noun

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form class word (person, place, or thing)

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number

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the singular or plural state of nouns and pronouns

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qualifier

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aka - intensifier, a structure-class word

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semantic feature

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elements of meaning (like human/non-human, animate/non-animate) that affect how words can be combined

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verb

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a form-class word having an {-s} affix in the third person singular and an {-ing} affix in the present participle form

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gradable adjective

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an adjective that can occur with qualifiers

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common noun

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a noun that names non-unique persons, places, or things

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count noun

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a noun that can be preceded by a number

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noncount noun

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aka - mass noun, a noun that ordinarily can not be preceded by a number or the determiner a/an

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Universal Grammar (UG)

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Noam Chomsky/Aspects of the Theory of Syntax: belieft that language acquistion was innate--not acquired.

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Prelinguistic stage

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silent period with only crying and later cooing and babbline

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Holophrastic stage

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one word communication

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two-word stage

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follows the holophrastic stage

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telegraphic stage

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(about 28 months) when the child may omit syllables in words, substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words--much like a telegram

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intermediate development stage

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follows the telegraphic stage

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adult stage

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final stage of language acquistion

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receptive language

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language that is spoken or written by others and recieved by an individual, that is listening or reading (decoding or getting meaning from spoken words or written symbols)

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cognitive language

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language which is received, processed into memory, integrated with knowledge already integrated, and made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can be generated. It is part of the creative process that shapes the thought of each person

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expressive language

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communication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures, that is, selecting words, formulating them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing, or gesturing (encoding or the process of expressive language). Expressive language involves word retrieval, rules of grammar (syntax), word and sentence structure (morphology), and word meaning (semantics).

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The acquistion-learning hypothesis

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two systems of language acquistion that are independent but related: the acquired system and the learned system

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acquired system

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unconscious aspect of language acquistion; speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with the act of communication meaning

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learned system

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formal instruction in which students engage in forma study to acquire knowledge about the target language

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monitor hypothesis

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illustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system: when second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned grammaer to edit, plan, and initiate their communication

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the natural order hypothesis

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this hypothesis argures that there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their taget language, and that order transcends, age, the native language, the target language, and the conditions under which the second language is being learned

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the natural order hypothesis

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1. second language learners produce single words 2. they strong words together based on meaning and not syntax 3. they begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences 4. they begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions

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the input hypothesis

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argues that learners progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order

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the affective filter hypothesis

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describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquistion, such as motivation level, self-confidence level, and anxiety

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dialect

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a subdivision of a language that are related to regional differences and/or social class; may differ in sound (phonology), in vocabulary, and in grammar from the orignal language

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pragmatics

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the rules for social language

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pragmatics

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1. using language appropriately for different social situations 2. changing one's language according to the listener's needs (volume, change in vocabulary) 3. following rules for conversing with others, such a taking turns, staying on topic, not standing too close, and rephrasing when necessary

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analytic language

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language that uses very few bound morphemes--prefixes and suffixes and inflections or grammatical endings of nouns

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synthetic language

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language that uses large numbers of bound morphemes and often compbines strings of them to form a single word.

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morpheme

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in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

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phoneme

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(linguistics) one of a small set of speech sounds that are distinguished by the speakers of a particular language

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A pronoun as a predicated noun

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use verb to-be (\"is\") can be reversed \"The person who prank called us is she.\" uses subjunctive case (\"she\") Ex: She is the person who pranked called us.

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Essential Adj. Clause

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Modifies the noun, \"cookies\": that clause is essential to sentence Ex: The cookies that I made were put in the refrigerator by Dr. Jones.

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Non-essential Adj. Clause

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modifies noun, \"Bobert\" set apart from sentence by commas who not essential to meaning of sentence Ex: Bobert, who is nice but a short guy, would like to take Tonie out sometime.

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Subordinate/Dependent Clause

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Cannot stand alone as a sentence (fragment) not a complete thought Ex: Ireland is my favorite country, a place where I would love to live one day.

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Predicate Nominative

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\"place\" describes \"my apartment\" follows linking verb, \"is\" Ex: My apartment is a place that is small and cheap.

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Noun clause as Predicate Nominative

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begins with \"what\" follows \"is\" (linking verb) Ex: Running on pavement is what my doctors told me not to do.

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Appositive

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set off by commas classifies the noun, \"Tonie\" Ex: Tonie, a Greek girl, is looking for a Greek man to marry.

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Nonun clause as Indirect Object

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noun clause \"whatever\" \"whatever I want\" = noun + verb Ex: I'd like to order whatever I want tonight.

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Gerund

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A verb that has been made into a noun by adding-ing Ex: I love working out as long as I have my music with me.

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Independent clause

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can stand alone without the rest of the sentence has subject and predicate Ex: Pudding face jumped for job, as Tonie and Megan wlaked through the doorway.

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Declarative

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A sentence that ends with a period.

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Imperative

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A command.

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Interrogative

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A sentence that ends with a question mark.

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Transitive verb

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A verb that requires an object to be grammatical.

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Compounding

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A word that consists of two or more elements that are independent words Ex: Loud speaker, baby sit

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Stem

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The root or main part of a word to which inflections or formative elements are added

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Antecedent

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A word or phrase that a subsequent word refers back to Ex: I'll give this to Mary if I see her. (HER is the antecedent of Mary)

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When to use the articles: A and An

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A is used with: a singular noun beginning with a consonant Ex: a car

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a

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singular noun with a consonant sound Ex: a unicorn

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An

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is used when: a singular noun begins with a vowel Ex: an elephant

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Dependent or subordinate clause

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A group of words that has a subject and a predicate, but they cannot stand alone It depends on some more information that is not expressed

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Three types of dependent clauses

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Adjective clause Noun clause Adverbial clause

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Adjective clause

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A subordinate clause that functions as an adjective These clauses are dependent and limit nouns or pronouns

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Noun Clause

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Functions as a noun and can be used in 4 ways: 1) Subject of a sentence Ex: What the Chairman proposed was not practical. 2) DIrect obeject of a verb Ex: I hope that you will be promoted. 3) Prediate noun Ex: The rumor was that he had lef the city. 4) Object of a preposition Ex: Give the message to whoever is in the office.

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Adverbial Clause

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These clauses tell how, when, where, and to what extent an action is performed These clauses also modify: 1) verbs 2) adjectives 3) other adverbs

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Semicolons

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used to link independent clauses that do not contain conjunctions Use to avoid a comma splice Ex: I am going home, I intend to stay there. (There is no conjunction here) In this example, a semicolon needs to be placed in between the words HOME and I.

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Conjunctions

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It is also called a coordinate conjunction or connecting word The conjunctions are: and, for, or, nor, so, yet, but If used at the beginning of the second indpendent clause a comma is needed. It is always before the coordinating conjunction

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Simple subject

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To find the simple subject, divide the sentence between the complete subject and the complete predicate. Next, cross out all of the prepositional phrases Ex: On Saturday at the Horseshoe, the Ohio Sate Buckeyes played the Michigan Wolverines for a shot at the final game. (The \"I\" denotes the speraption b/w subject and predicate, and the underline indicates the prespositional phrase. Thuse, \"the Ohio State Buckyeyes\" is the simple subject.

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Accept v. Except

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Accept= verb meaning to receive or to agree. Ex: He accepted their praise. Except= Preposition meaning all but, other than Ex: Everyone went to the game except Alyson.

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Sentence completeness

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Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognize sentence elements necessary to make a complete though and proper use of punctuation.

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Appositive Clause

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An appositive clause is a group of words that gives more information about the noun. When these clauses are separated and made to look like sentences you get sentence fragments. Fragment: Hilda nearly fainted when she opend the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes. The contest she had been entering faithfully for twenty years. Correct: Hilda nearly fainted when she opened the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes, the contest she'd been entering faithfully for twenty years.

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Fragments Caused by Verbals

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Verbals are verb forms that act as other parts of speech. They can easily trick a writer into mistaking a phrase for a sentence b/c they like verbs, but do not act as verbs. Rember: An-ing word by itself can never act as the verb of a sentence. To qualify as a verb, it must have an auxiliary word such as have, is, or were. An infinitive, such as to run, to go, and so on can never act as the verb of a sentence. Fragment: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office. That was one possible response. Correct: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office was one possible response.

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Participles

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Used as adjectives Ex: an interesting experience, the surprised researchers Based on verbs; expresses action or a state of being Ex: The crying baby had a wet diaper. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked war. Modify nouns or propouns Ex: Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.

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Present Participles

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end in-ing used with BE to indicate continuing action or state Ex: I am going. They were laughing.

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Past Participles

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end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or-n Ex: asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen Used with have to form past tenses Ex: We have climbed. She had ridden.Used with BE to form the passive voice Ex: The floor is being scrubbed. The ball was kicked.

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Adjective

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Modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words Usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies Ex:The small boat foundered on the win dark sea. A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

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Nouns and pronouns

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A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectiveds or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like \"he\", \"which\", \"none\", and \"you\" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

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noun

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a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea; example: boy, Juan, river, Texas

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common noun

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names any person place, thing or idea; example: pilot, city, park

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proper noun

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names a particular person, place, thing, or idea; example: Amelia Earhart, Chicago, Katmai National Park

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singular noun

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names one person, place, or thing; example: principal, cafeteria, stereos

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plural noun

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names more than one person, place, or thing; example: principals, switches, communities, toys, leaves, roofs, radios, potatoes, feet, sheep

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possessive noun

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noun that shows ownership or possession

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singular possessive noun

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shows ownership by one person or thing; example: my aunt's house

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plural possessive noun

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shows ownership by more than one person or thing; example: my friends' parents

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pronoun

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takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it

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antecedent

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when using pronoun, the noun to which it refers; example: HE heard. NICHOLAS heard. // pronouns should agree with number and gender; example: NICHOLAS heard a LIBRARIAN tell STORIES.

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subject pronoun

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used as a subject or part of a the subject in a sentence; WE are ready to go.

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object pronoun

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is used as a direct/indirect object in a sentence; example: Rebecca gave ME a gift.

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possessive pronoun

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shows ownership or possession of something; example: Jerome is learning about HIS ancestors.

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reflexive pronoun

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usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves

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indefinite pronoun

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a pronoun that does not refer to a specific, person, place, thing, or idea; examples: everyone, everything, everybody, anybody, many, most, few, each, some, someone, all, nothing, nobody, and no one

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who

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use as a subject pronoun; example: _____ is not going?

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whom

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use as an object pronoun; example: To _____ am I speaking?

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adjective

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a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun; example: We saw LAZY lions beneath a SHADY tree.

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articles

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adjectives 'a,' 'an,' and 'the'

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proper adjective

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an adjective that is formed from a proper noun; example: Africa --> African; Scotland --> Scottish

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demonstrative adjective

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tells which one; examples: this, that, these, and those

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predicate adjective

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an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.

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positive adjective

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adjective used when no comparison being made; example: This is a HOT day.

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comparative adjective

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an adjective used to compare two items; example: Today is HOTTER than yesterday.

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superlative adjective

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an adjective used to compare three or more items; example: This is the HOTTEST day of the year.

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action verb

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tells what the subject of a sentence does or did; example: She SLEEPS every day. She SLEPT every day.

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linking verb

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joins the subject and the predicate

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verb phrase

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contains the main verb and helping verbs

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main verb

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the most important verb in a phrase

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helping verb

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is not the main verb in a phrase; are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer; includes any forms of TO BE

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present / present participle

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play / (is, are, am) playing --> adding -ing used with form be

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past / past participle

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played / (have, has, had) played --> adding -ed or -d with form have

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verb tense

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verb that tells the time of the action or being

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present tense

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verb that tells something that is happening now; example: Dena LAUGHS at the jokes.

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past tense

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verb that tells something that happened in the past; example: Dena LAUGHED at the jokes.

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future tense

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tells that something will happen in the future; uses WILL with the verb; example: Dena WILL LAUGH at the jokes.

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present perfect

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tense with the past participle and helping verb HAVE and HAS

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past perfect

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tense with the past participle and helping verb HAD

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future perfect

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tense with the past participle and helping verb WILL HAVE

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irregular verb

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does not end with -ed to form the past participle; examples; (is, are, am / was / were) ; (has, have / had / had) ; (do, does / did / done) ; ate, grown, bought, sold, spent, taken, etc.

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direct object

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noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb; tells who or what receives the action; example: Bobby loved his PARENTS.

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indirect object

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tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done; example: Jack showed the DOG kindness.

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predicate nominative

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noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Lassie has been a CELEBRITY for decades.

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transitive verb

answer

action verb followed by a noun or pronoun that receives the action; example: I KNOW the story.

question

intransitive verb

answer

includes all linking verbs and any action verbs that do not take an object; example: My friends CRIED.

question

adverb

answer

words that describes verbs, adjectives, or other -----; answers when, where, how, to what extent; modifies a verb, adjective, or -----; tells how, when, where, or to what extent; example: Our skates move EFFORTLESSLY. (how) or The ice is glistening NOW. (when) *most ----- are formed by adding -ly to an adjective*

question

comparative adverb

answer

adverbs such as lower, nearer, more slowly; faster, more seriously

question

superlative adverb

answer

adverbs such as lowest, nearest, most slowly; fastest, most seriously

question

negatives

answer

words that mean no; common negatives: no, not, never, nowhere, nothing, nobody, no one, neither, scarcely, barely; use only one in a sentence

question

preposition

answer

shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence; example: I walked ALONG the beach.

question

object of the preposition

answer

is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition; example: The sands of the BEACH were white.

question

prepositional phrase

answer

is made up of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the words in between: example: Who lives IN THAT HOUSE?

question

adjective phrase

answer

prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun; examples: The killer whale is a species of PORPOISE. (tells what kind of species) or That whale WITH THE UNUSUAL MARKINGS is our favorite. (tells which whale)

question

adverb phrase

answer

prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; examples: The porpoises performed WITH EASE. (tells how) or Shows begin ON THE HOUR. (tells when)

question

conjunction

answer

connects words or word groups

question

coordinating conjunction

answer

AND, BUT, and OR join ideas that are similar; remember to place a comma before you write sentences; example: Craig gets in trouble, BUT he usually gets out of it.

question

correlative conjunction

answer

EITHER/OR, NEITHER/NOR, BOTH/AND join pairs of ideas

question

subordinating conjunction

answer

connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however

question

interjections

answer

a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling; example: WELL, Snoopy is at the typewriter again.

question

infinitive

answer

a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.

question

infinitive phrase

answer

phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers

question

gerund

answer

a verb ending in -ing and functions as a noun; example: ESTIMATING is an important mathematics skill.

question

gerund phrase

answer

includes the gerund, its object, and its object's modifiers; WRITING A BEST SELLER is the goal of every novelist.

question

participle

answer

verb that functions as an adjective; example: A RUNNING horse galloped down the road.

question

participle phrase

answer

phrase that includes the participle, its modifier, and its objects; example: The child, FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE, turned and walked away.

question

collective noun

answer

common noun that names a group with more than one member; examples: jury, brigade, staff

question

mass noun

answer

a common noun that cannot be easily separated into countable units; examples: water, sand, gold, cement, air

question

demonstrative pronoun

answer

points out particular person, place, or things

question

indefinite pronoun

answer

points out person, places, or things, but less clearly;

question

interrogative pronoun

answer

pronoun that asks a question; examples: who, whom, whose, what, which

question

reflexive pronoun

answer

pronoun that ends in -self or -selves

question

concrete noun

answer

names things you can see and touch; examples: pizza, kitten, diamond

question

abstract noun

answer

names an idea, quality, action, or feeling

question

intensive pronoun

answer

emphasizes its antecedent; adds emphasis to pronoun or named noun; examples: I MYSELF will go.

question

personal pronoun

answer

takes the place of a noun or nouns; they show number and gender; example: singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its / plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs

question

relative pronoun

answer

linked group of words preceding noun or pronoun; examples: who, which, that

question

common prepositions

answer

about, behind, above, across, as, after, between, beyond, beside, despite, during, for, inside, in, near, off, outside, onto, opposite, around, against, along, at, before, below, beneath, but, by, down, except, from, into, like, out, over, of, opposite, past, toward, under, upon within, since, through, until, underneath, with

question

common articles

answer

a, and, the

question

coordinating conjunctions

answer

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

question

parts of speech

answer

adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs

question

types of nouns

answer

common, proper, compound, collective

question

types of verbs

answer

action, linking, helping, phrases

question

types of helping verbs

answer

do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must

question

common linking verbs

answer

be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become, am, are, is, was, were, am being, can be, have been

question

types of adjectives

answer

common, proper, compound, articles, indefinite articles

question

types of indefinite articles

answer

another, each, neither, many, all, more, other, both, either, few, several, any, most, some

question

common adverbs (non -ly)

answer

afterward, already, quick, hard, never, today, even, low, rather, tomorrow, how, now, then, yesterday, late, often, almost, back, long, soon, when, here, next, still, where, far, more, slow, too, fast, near, so

question

common pronouns

answer

I, me, mine, my, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, she, him, her, his, it, them, them, their, theirs, its

question

types of demonstrative pronouns

answer

this, that, these, those

question

noun

answer

a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea; example: boy, Juan, river, Texas

question

common noun

answer

names any person place, thing or idea; example: pilot, city, park

question

proper noun

answer

names a particular person, place, thing, or idea; example: Amelia Earhart, Chicago, Katmai National Park

question

singular noun

answer

names one person, place, or thing; example: principal, cafeteria, stereos

question

plural noun

answer

names more than one person, place, or thing; example: principals, switches, communities, toys, leaves, roofs, radios, potatoes, feet, sheep

question

possessive noun

answer

noun that shows ownership or possession

question

singular possessive noun

answer

shows ownership by one person or thing; example: my aunt's house

question

plural possessive noun

answer

shows ownership by more than one person or thing; example: my friends' parents

question

pronoun

answer

takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it

question

antecedent

answer

when using pronoun, the noun to which it refers; example: HE heard. NICHOLAS heard. // pronouns should agree with number and gender; example: NICHOLAS heard a LIBRARIAN tell STORIES.

question

subject pronoun

answer

used as a subject or part of a the subject in a sentence; WE are ready to go.

question

object pronoun

answer

is used as a direct/indirect object in a sentence; example: Rebecca gave ME a gift.

question

possessive pronoun

answer

shows ownership or possession of something; example: Jerome is learning about HIS ancestors.

question

reflexive pronoun

answer

usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves

question

indefinite pronoun

answer

a pronoun that does not refer to a specific, person, place, thing, or idea; examples: everyone, everything, everybody, anybody, many, most, few, each, some, someone, all, nothing, nobody, and no one

question

who

answer

use as a subject pronoun; example: _____ is not going?

question

whom

answer

use as an object pronoun; example: To _____ am I speaking?

question

adjective

answer

a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun; example: We saw LAZY lions beneath a SHADY tree.

question

articles

answer

adjectives 'a,' 'an,' and 'the'

question

proper adjective

answer

an adjective that is formed from a proper noun; example: Africa --> African; Scotland --> Scottish

question

demonstrative adjective

answer

tells which one; examples: this, that, these, and those

question

predicate adjective

answer

an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.

question

positive adjective

answer

adjective used when no comparison being made; example: This is a HOT day.

question

comparative adjective

answer

an adjective used to compare two items; example: Today is HOTTER than yesterday.

question

superlative adjective

answer

an adjective used to compare three or more items; example: This is the HOTTEST day of the year.

question

action verb

answer

tells what the subject of a sentence does or did; example: She SLEEPS every day. She SLEPT every day.

question

linking verb

answer

joins the subject and the predicate

question

verb phrase

answer

contains the main verb and helping verbs

question

main verb

answer

the most important verb in a phrase

question

helping verb

answer

is not the main verb in a phrase; are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer; includes any forms of TO BE

question

present / present participle

answer

play / (is, are, am) playing --> adding -ing used with form be

question

past / past participle

answer

played / (have, has, had) played --> adding -ed or -d with form have

question

verb tense

answer

verb that tells the time of the action or being

question

present tense

answer

verb that tells something that is happening now; example: Dena LAUGHS at the jokes.

question

past tense

answer

verb that tells something that happened in the past; example: Dena LAUGHED at the jokes.

question

future tense

answer

tells that something will happen in the future; uses WILL with the verb; example: Dena WILL LAUGH at the jokes.

question

present perfect

answer

tense with the past participle and helping verb HAVE and HAS

question

past perfect

answer

tense with the past participle and helping verb HAD

question

future perfect

answer

tense with the past participle and helping verb WILL HAVE

question

irregular verb

answer

does not end with -ed to form the past participle; examples; (is, are, am / was / were) ; (has, have / had / had) ; (do, does / did / done) ; ate, grown, bought, sold, spent, taken, etc.

question

direct object

answer

noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb; tells who or what receives the action; example: Bobby loved his PARENTS.

question

indirect object

answer

tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done; example: Jack showed the DOG kindness.

question

predicate nominative

answer

noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Lassie has been a CELEBRITY for decades.

question

transitive verb

answer

action verb followed by a noun or pronoun that receives the action; example: I KNOW the story.

question

intransitive verb

answer

includes all linking verbs and any action verbs that do not take an object; example: My friends CRIED.

question

adverb

answer

words that describes verbs, adjectives, or other -----; answers when, where, how, to what extent; modifies a verb, adjective, or -----; tells how, when, where, or to what extent; example: Our skates move EFFORTLESSLY. (how) or The ice is glistening NOW. (when) *most ----- are formed by adding -ly to an adjective*

question

comparative adverb

answer

adverbs such as lower, nearer, more slowly; faster, more seriously

question

superlative adverb

answer

adverbs such as lowest, nearest, most slowly; fastest, most seriously

question

negatives

answer

words that mean no; common negatives: no, not, never, nowhere, nothing, nobody, no one, neither, scarcely, barely; use only one in a sentence

question

preposition

answer

shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence; example: I walked ALONG the beach.

question

object of the preposition

answer

is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition; example: The sands of the BEACH were white.

question

prepositional phrase

answer

is made up of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the words in between: example: Who lives IN THAT HOUSE?

question

adjective phrase

answer

prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun; examples: The killer whale is a species of PORPOISE. (tells what kind of species) or That whale WITH THE UNUSUAL MARKINGS is our favorite. (tells which whale)

question

adverb phrase

answer

prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; examples: The porpoises performed WITH EASE. (tells how) or Shows begin ON THE HOUR. (tells when)

question

conjunction

answer

connects words or word groups

question

coordinating conjunction

answer

AND, BUT, and OR join ideas that are similar; remember to place a comma before you write sentences; example: Craig gets in trouble, BUT he usually gets out of it.

question

correlative conjunction

answer

EITHER/OR, NEITHER/NOR, BOTH/AND join pairs of ideas

question

subordinating conjunction

answer

connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however

question

interjections

answer

a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling; example: WELL, Snoopy is at the typewriter again.

question

infinitive

answer

a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.

question

infinitive phrase

answer

phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers

question

gerund

answer

a verb ending in -ing and functions as a noun; example: ESTIMATING is an important mathematics skill.

question

gerund phrase

answer

includes the gerund, its object, and its object's modifiers; WRITING A BEST SELLER is the goal of every novelist.

question

participle

answer

verb that functions as an adjective; example: A RUNNING horse galloped down the road.

question

participle phrase

answer

phrase that includes the participle, its modifier, and its objects; example: The child, FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE, turned and walked away.

question

collective noun

answer

common noun that names a group with more than one member; examples: jury, brigade, staff

question

mass noun

answer

a common noun that cannot be easily separated into countable units; examples: water, sand, gold, cement, air

question

demonstrative pronoun

answer

points out particular person, place, or things

question

indefinite pronoun

answer

points out person, places, or things, but less clearly;

question

interrogative pronoun

answer

pronoun that asks a question; examples: who, whom, whose, what, which

question

reflexive pronoun

answer

pronoun that ends in -self or -selves

question

concrete noun

answer

names things you can see and touch; examples: pizza, kitten, diamond

question

abstract noun

answer

names an idea, quality, action, or feeling

question

intensive pronoun

answer

emphasizes its antecedent; adds emphasis to pronoun or named noun; examples: I MYSELF will go.

question

personal pronoun

answer

takes the place of a noun or nouns; they show number and gender; example: singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its / plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs

question

relative pronoun

answer

linked group of words preceding noun or pronoun; examples: who, which, that

question

common prepositions

answer

about, behind, above, across, as, after, between, beyond, beside, despite, during, for, inside, in, near, off, outside, onto, opposite, around, against, along, at, before, below, beneath, but, by, down, except, from, into, like, out, over, of, opposite, past, toward, under, upon within, since, through, until, underneath, with

question

common articles

answer

a, and, the

question

coordinating conjunctions

answer

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

question

parts of speech

answer

adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs

question

types of nouns

answer

common, proper, compound, collective

question

types of verbs

answer

action, linking, helping, phrases

question

types of helping verbs

answer

do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must

question

common linking verbs

answer

be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become, am, are, is, was, were, am being, can be, have been

question

types of adjectives

answer

common, proper, compound, articles, indefinite articles

question

types of indefinite articles

answer

another, each, neither, many, all, more, other, both, either, few, several, any, most, some

question

common adverbs (non -ly)

answer

afterward, already, quick, hard, never, today, even, low, rather, tomorrow, how, now, then, yesterday, late, often, almost, back, long, soon, when, here, next, still, where, far, more, slow, too, fast, near, so

question

common pronouns

answer

I, me, mine, my, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, she, him, her, his, it, them, them, their, theirs, its

question

types of demonstrative pronouns

answer

this, that, these, those

question

types of indefinite pronouns

answer

anything, no one, all, some, several

question

plot

answer

the series of related events that make up a story

question

conflict

answer

a struggle or clash between opposing characters or opposing forces

question

external conflict

answer

a character struggles against some outside force. This outside force may be another character or society as a whole.

question

internal conflict

answer

this takes place within a character's mind. It is a struggle between opposing needs, desires, or emotions

question

climax

answer

the most emotional or suspenseful moment in the story

question

characterization

answer

the process of revealing the personality of a character in a story

question

direct characterization

answer

used when a writer simply states the character's traits, or characteristics

question

indirect characterization

answer

used when a writer depends on the reader to draw conclusions about the character's traits

question

resolution

answer

the last part of a story when the character's problems are solved and the story ends

question

theme

answer

the idea about life revealed in a work of literature

question

foreshadowing

answer

the use of clues to hint at events that will happen later in the story

question

point of view

answer

vantage point from which a story is told

question

omniscient

answer

all knowing point of view. A narrator who can tell the reader everything about all the characters, even their most private thoughts.

question

1st person

answer

a story told by one of the characters. The character uses the first person pronoun \"I\"

question

3rd person limited

answer

the narrator zooms in on the thoughts and feelings of just one character in the story

question

fiction

answer

a prose account that is made up rather than true

question

nonfiction

answer

prose writing that deals with real people, events, and places without changing any facts

question

biography

answer

(form of nonfiction) a ___________ is a story that the author writes about someone else's life

question

autobiography

answer

(form of nonfiction) a __________ is a story that the author writes about his/her own life

question

meter

answer

a poem or song's rhythmical pattern. The pattern is determined by the number and types of stresses, or beats, in each line

question

rhyme

answer

the repetition of accented vowel sounds and all sounds following them in words close together in a poem

question

end rhyme

answer

rhymes at the end of a line

question

internal rhyme

answer

rhymes within lines

question

figure of speech

answer

a word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of something else and is not literally true

question

simile

answer

comparison of two unlike objects using like or as

question

metaphor

answer

comparison of two unlike objects without using the words like or as

question

onomatopoeia

answer

the use of words with sound that echo their sense

question

alliteration

answer

the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words

question

personification

answer

giving human characteristics to inanimate objects

question

mythology

answer

a story that explains something about the world and typically involves gods or other super human beings

question

run-on

answer

two or more sentences joined together without any punctuation

question

independent clause

answer

a sentence contains a subject, a verb, and it expresses a complete thought

question

fragment

answer

part of a sentence

question

verb

answer

word that shows action or state of being

question

noun

answer

a person place thing or idea

question

pronoun

answer

a word that takes the place of a noun

question

adjective

answer

a word that describes a noun or pronoun

question

adverb

answer

a word that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb

question

preposition

answer

a word used to show the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word or words in the sentence

question

conjunction

answer

a word used to join words or groups of words

question

interjection

answer

a word used to express emotion

question

Noun

answer

A word which is the name of something: a person, place, thing, or idea.

question

Proper Noun

answer

The name of a particular person, place, thing or idea. Proper nouns are always capitalized.

question

Common Noun

answer

Any noun which does not name any particular person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns are not capitalized.

question

Noun Groups (3)

answer

Form (number, gender and case); Function (subject,object, complement, appositive, and modifier); Class (proper, common, concrete, abstract, and collective)

question

Pronoun

answer

A word used in place of a noun.

question

Antecedent

answer

The noun which the pronoun refers to or replaces. Each pronoun must agree with the antecedent in number, person, and gender.

question

Verb

answer

A word which expresses action or state of being.

question

Voice

answer

Indeicates wether the subject is acting or being acted upon.

question

Passive Voice

answer

Indicates that the subject of the verb is being acted upon.

question

Tense

answer

Indicates time.

question

Present Tense

answer

Expresses action which is happening at the present time, or which happens continually, regularly.

question

Past Tense

answer

Expresses action which is completed at a particular time in the past.

question

Future Tense

answer

Expresses action which will take place in the future.

question

Present Perfect Tense

answer

Expresses action which began in the past but continues in the present or is completed at the present.

question

Past Perfect Tense

answer

Expresses action which began in the past and was completed in the past.

question

Future Perfect Tense

answer

Expresses action which will begin in the future and be completed by a specific time in the future.

question

Adjective

answer

Describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. i.e. a, an, the

question

Adverb

answer

Modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Tells how, when, where, why, how often, and how much.

question

Preposition

answer

is a word (or goup of words) that shows the relationship between its object (a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and anouth word in the sentence.

question

Conjunction

answer

Connects individual words or groups of words.

question

Interjection

answer

Is included in a sentence in order to commincate strong emotion or suprise.

question

Active Voice

answer

Indicates that the subject of the verb is acting - doing something.

question

Adjective

answer

is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or a pronoun.

question

Adverb

answer

is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

question

Definite Article

answer

is the most commonly used adjective and points to a specific person, place,thing, or idea.

question

Indefinite Article

answer

is the most commonly used adjective and is used before a noun that names a nonspecific person,place, thing, or idea.

question

Noun

answer

names a person, place,thing, or idea.

question

Pronoun

answer

a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun.

question

Simple Predicate

answer

answers the question: what is the subject doing? And it must be a verb.

question

Simple Subject

answer

answers the question: Who or what is doing something in the sentence without any descriptors?

question

Verb

answer

a word used to express an action, a condition, or a state of being.

question

Verb Phrase

answer

is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verbs.

question

Grammar

answer

A way of thinking about language and the architecture of the human mind.

question

Four-Level Analysis

answer

Level 1: Parts of Speech Level 2: Parts of the Sentence Level 3: Phrases Level 4: Clauses

question

The Noun Family

answer

Noun, Pronoun, Adjective

question

The Verb Family

answer

Verb, Adverb

question

The -tion Family

answer

Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection

question

Noun

answer

A person, place, thing, or idea Answers the questions \"what\" and \"who\"

question

Proper Nouns

answer

Names specific persons, places, and things Are capitalized Ex: Chicago

question

Common Nouns

answer

Names generic persons, places, things, or ideas Are not capitalized Ex: pen

question

Concrete Nouns

answer

Names tangible objects Ex: table

question

Abstract Nouns

answer

Names ideas, qualities, and emotions Ex: freedom

question

Collective Nouns

answer

Names a group Ex: flock

question

Are

answer

singular in America Ex: The flock is heading South for the winter.

question

Are

answer

sometimes plural in England Ex: The flock are heading South for the winter.

question

Nouns of Direct Address

answer

Address someone directly Ex: \"Friends, Romans, countrymen, ...\"

question

Singular Noun

answer

Describes one object Ex: boat

question

Plual Noun

answer

Describes multiple objects Ex: boats

question

Pronouns

answer

A word that takes the place of a noun Refer to nouns Are used instead of repeating an antecedent (noun) Makes language fast Has gender (masculine- he, him, his)(feminine- she, her, hers)(neuter- it, its) May have person and number

question

Antecedent

answer

The noun the pronoun replaces Named so because it goes (cede) before (ante) its pronoun Ex: Hamlet was he... Note: are not always present

question

Subject Pronouns

answer

Used to make subjects Can be subjects of clauses Can be subject complements Are said to be in the subject case Ex: I, we, you (singular), you (plural), he, she, it, they

question

Object Pronouns

answer

Used as objects Can be direct objects Can be indirect objects Can be the objects of prepositions Are said to be in the object case Ex: me, us, you (singular), you (plural), him, her, it, them

question

Possessive Pronouns

answer

Shows possession or ownership Used as both a pronoun and an adjective Ex: my, our, your (singular), your (plural), his, her, its, their

question

Interrogative Pronouns

answer

Used to interrogate (ask) Ex: who, whose, whom, which, what

question

Demonstrative Pronouns

answer

Used to demonstrate Ex: this, these, that, those

question

Relative Pronouns

answer

Used to relate an adjective clause to a main clause Often begin short adjective clauses that interrupt main clauses Ex: who, whose, whom, which, what

question

Reflexive Pronouns

answer

-self or -selves pronouns that reflect back to a word used previously in the sentence Ex: I am almost mad myself.

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Indefinite Pronouns

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General pronouns that do not have a definite antecedent Ex: anyone, someone, all, anybody, somebody, each Note: those ending in -one and -body are singular

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Intensive Pronouns

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-self or -selves pronouns that are used to intensify the emphasis on a noun or another pronoun Ex: I myself agree with that idea.

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Adjective

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A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun Can be used as a subject complement Answers the questions \"which one,\" \"what kind,\" and \"how many\" The presence of an adjective implies the presence of a noun or pronoun Ex: The red car

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The Adjective Degrees

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Positive- not modified Ex: hot, good, fun Comparative- used to compare two or more nouns and/or pronouns Uses either \"-er\" or \"more\", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, better, more fun Superlative- expresses the highest or a very high degree of the quality of what is being described Uses either \"-est\" or \"most\", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, best, most fun

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Coordinated Conjunction

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FANBOYS = For + And + Nor + But + Or + Yet + So

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For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.

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Coordinated Conjunction Mnemonic Device: FANBOOYS

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Their vs. There

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THEIR meaning \"belonging to them\". THERE meaning \"in that place\"

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Principal or Principle

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\"A princi\"pal at a school is your pal, and a principle you believe is a rule\"

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Parts of Speech

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(Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection)

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Noun

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Every name is called a NOUN, As field and fountain, street and town

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Pronoun

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In place of noun the PRONOUN stands As he and she can clap their hands

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Adjective

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The ADJECTIVE describes a thing, As magic wand and bridal ring

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Verb

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The VERB means action, something done - To read, to write, to jump, to run

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Adverb

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How things are done, the ADVERBS tell, As quickly, slowly, badly, well

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Preposition

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The PREPOSITION shows relation, As in the street, or at the station

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Conjunction

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CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways, Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase

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Interjection

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The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark! I need an exclamation mark!'

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THE PARTS OF SPEECH POEM

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Every name is called a NOUN, As field and fountain, street and town In place of noun the PRONOUN stands As he and she can clap their hands The ADJECTIVE describes a thing, As magic wand and bridal ring The VERB means action, something done - To read, to write, to jump, to run How things are done, the ADVERBS tell, As quickly, slowly, badly, well The PREPOSITION shows relation, As in the street, or at the station CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways, Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark! I need an exclamation mark!' Through Poetry, we learn how each of these make up THE PARTS OF SPEECH .

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NINE PARTS OF SPEECH

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Three little words you often see Are articles - a, an, and the. A noun's the name of anything As school or garden, hoop or swing. Adjectives describe the 'kind of noun' As great, small, pretty, white or brown. Instead of nouns, the pronouns stand - Her head, his face, your arm, my hand. Verbs tell of something to be done - To read, count, sing, to laugh or run. How things are done the adverbs tell, As slowly, quickly, ill or well. Conjunctions join the words together, As men and women, wind or weather. The preposition stands before A noun, as in or through a door. The interjection shows surprise, As Oh! How pretty! Oh! How wise! The whole are called nine parts of speech, Which reading, writing, speaking teach.

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Articles

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Three little words you often see Are articles - a, an, and the.

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Noun

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A noun's the name of anything As school or garden, hoop or swing.

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Adjectives

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Adjectives describe the 'kind of noun' As great, small, pretty, white or brown.

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pronouns

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Instead of nouns, the pronouns stand - Her head, his face, your arm, my hand.

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Verbs

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Verbs tell of something to be done - To read, count, sing, to laugh or run.

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adverbs

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How things are done the adverbs tell, As slowly, quickly, ill or well.

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Conjunctions

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Conjunctions join the words together, As men and women, wind or weather.

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preposition

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The preposition stands before A noun, as in or through a door.

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interjection

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The interjection shows surprise, As Oh! How pretty! Oh! How wise!

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Singular subject takes a singular verb Rule

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The Basic Rule of Subject and Verb Agreement states a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb. Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they. Which one is the singular form? Which word would you use with he? We say, \"He talks.\" Therefore, talks is singular. We say, \"They talk.\" Therefore, talk is plural.

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require a singular verb

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Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor

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require a singular verb

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Two singular subjects connected by or or nor

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Place I second, and follow it with the singular verb am.

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When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor? Like : Neither she nor I am going to the festival.

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put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.

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When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, As in : Neither Jenny nor the others are available.

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put the plural subject last and use a plural verb

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When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor,

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And

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As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by ___?

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Ignore them

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Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. ____ what to these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb?

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Are singular and require singular verbs

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The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are ___ and require ___ __-. Do not be misled by what follows of.

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Everyone is one word when it means everybody.

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Everyone or Every one?

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Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.

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Everyone / Every one?

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Noun; singular verb, plural verb

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With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the ___ in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a ___. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a ___.

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singular verb

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The expression \"the number\" is followed by a___? \"The number\" of people we need to hire \"is\" thirteen.

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plural verb

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the expression \"a number\" is followed by a ____. \"A number\" of people \"have\" written in about this subject.

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singular verbs

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When either and neither are subjects, they always take ? Neither of them is available to speak right now. Either of us is capable of doing the job.

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the subject follows the verb

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The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, The __ ___ ___ __.

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Use a singular verb

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with sums of money or periods of time.

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if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

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Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So,

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may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence

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Collective nouns such as team and staff

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Subject, Object, or Possessive

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A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: .

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Subject pronouns

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are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.

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Subject pronouns

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are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be.

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Object pronouns

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are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). ______ ______ are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.

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strong clause

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A ___ ___ can stand on its own. Examples: She is hungry. I am feeling well today.

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weak clause

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A ____ ____ begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. _____ clauses cannot stand on their own. Examples: Although she is hungry... If she is hungry... Since I am feeling well...

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isolate the clauses so that you can decide which pronoun is correct

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If a sentence contains more than one clause.

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mentally complete the sentence

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To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.

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Possessive pronouns

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show ownership and never need apostrophes. E.g. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

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Reflexive pronouns

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- myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence.

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Use the he/him method

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to decide which word is correct. he = who him = whom

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he

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= who

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him

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= whom

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who

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Who/Whom wrote the letter? He wrote the letter. Therefore, ___ is correct.

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whom

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For who/whom should I vote? Should I vote for him? Therefore, ___ is correct.

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him + he = whoever him + him = whomever

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To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, here is the rule: him + he = whoever him + him = whomever

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whoever

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him + he =

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whomever

answer

him + him =

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look inside the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.

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When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause,

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refers to people

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Who

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refer to groups or things

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That and which

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introduces essential clauses

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That Examples: I do not trust products that claim \"all natural ingredients\" because this phrase can mean almost anything. We would not know which products were being discussed without the that clause.

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introduces nonessential clauses.

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which The product claiming \"all natural ingredients,\" which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale. The product is already identified. Therefore, which begins a _____ _____?

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use which to introduce the next clause

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If this, that, these, or those has already introduced an essential clause, you may do what to the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential? That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life. Those ideas, which we've discussed thoroughly enough, do not need to be addressed again.

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Adjectives

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are words that describe nouns or pronouns. They may come before the word they describe (That is a cute puppy.) or they may follow the word they describe (That puppy is cute.).

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Adverbs

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are words that modify everything but nouns and pronouns. They modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. A word is an adverb if it answers how, when, or where.

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how?

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The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question ____, so focus on these.

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adverb; If it can have an -ly added to it, place \"how\" there.

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Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there.

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-ly word

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A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly.

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When referring to health

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use well rather than good.

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Good vs. Well

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The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb., good is an adjective use good before nouns and after linking verbs to modify the subject use well as an adverb when modifying a verb use the advery well well is used tas an adjective only when describing someone's health

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the wrong form for comparison

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A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using. To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, \"She is the poorer of the two women.\"

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to describe one thing

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we would say poor, as in, \"She is poor.\"

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To compare two things

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we should say poorer, as in, \"She is the poorer of the two women.\"

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To compare more than two things

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we should say poorest, as in, \"She is the poorest of them all.\"

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Use more or most in front of the words.

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Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use ___.

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Never drop the -ly from an adverb

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when using the comparison form.

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When this, that, these, and those

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are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.

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This and that

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are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. This points to something nearby while that points to something \"over there.\"

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These and those

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are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. These points to something nearby while those points to something \"over there.\"

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Than

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Use ____ to show comparison.

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Then

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Use ____ to answer the question when.

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End a sentence with a preposition

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You may ___ a sentence with a preposition.

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do not use extra prepositions

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Just do not do what to prepositions when their meaning is clear?

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Use on

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with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence

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Of

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should never be used in place of have.

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Between

answer

refers to two.

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Among

answer

is used for three or more.

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informal writing

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like may be used as a preposition and in what kind of writing, as a conjunction.

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like

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In formal writing, use as, as if, or as though rather than ____ as the conjunction.

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Active voice

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means the subject is performing the verb.

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Avoid overusing

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there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on.

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positive

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don't use two negatives to make a

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parallel construction

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Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called ____? successive sentences or phrases follow the same pattern of wording in order to emphasize and idea, repetition of a grammatical pattern.

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dangling modifier

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If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous ___., A phrase or a clause, which says something different from what is meant, because words are left out. Place modifiers near the words they modify!

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near the words they modify.

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Place modifiers

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modifiers

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Words that describe a noun that can include adjectives, verbs and nouns themselves, adjectives and adverbs are also known as

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sentence fragment

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occurs when you have only a phrase or weak clause but are missing a strong clause., a sentence missing a subject or verb or complete thought, when one or more of the three parts of a complete sentence is missing.

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complete sentence

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group of words that expresses a complete thought and contains a subject and a verb, contains a subject and a predicate

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predicate

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one of the two main constituents of a sentence, involve as a necessary condition of consequence, to declare; to assert; to say something about the subject.

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Grammar Rules

answer

rules about correct spoken or written language

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for and, nor, but, or, yet, and so

answer

fanboys - two independent clauses can be combined with the conjunctions?

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apostrophes

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The superscript sign ( ' ) used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of numbers, letters, and abbreviations.

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prepositions

answer

a word that shows a relationship between nouns or pronouns and some other words in a sentence

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Ask who or what before the verb

answer

Finding Subjects

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Verb

answer

is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am, and so on). Definition. A Subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the verb.

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Sentence patterns

answer

the arrangement of independent and dependent clauses into known sentence constructions-such as simple,compound.complex,or compound-complex, s-v, s-v-o, s-lv- adjective complement, s-lv - subject complement

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independent and dependent clauses

answer

what are the two types of clauses???

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dependent clauses

answer

are used as nouns or modifiers, are incomplete sentences and cannot stand alone grammatically; they are sometimes called subordinate clauses; those that function as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs are known, respectively, as adjective, noun, and adverbial clauses, clause the known as a fragment sentence when alone, contains a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought. (subordinate clause)....starts with words such as: although, before, because, so that, when, while, so, that

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independent clauses

answer

expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence (main clause), clause with a subject and a predicate that expresses a complete thought that make sense by itself, but which are joined by coordinating conjunctions because they are related.

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subordinating conjunction

answer

dependent clauses start with what type of conjunction? E.g. although, before, because, so that, when, while, so, that, connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however

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conjunction

answer

something that joins or connects, A word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences (and, but, or, because ).

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clause

answer

a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb, a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

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main clause

answer

past/imperfect subjunctive, perfect subjunctive

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subjunctive

answer

a mood that represent an act or state (not as a fact but) as contingent or possible, uses different form of the past and present to express matters of urgency, formality, possibility, or speculation, ie. \"If I WERE...\", setting up a hypothetical situation

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The Subjunctive

answer

is used after the following expressions: It is best (that) It is crucial (that) It is desirable (that) It is essential (that) It is imperative (that) It is important (that) It is recommended (that) It is urgent (that) It is vital (that) It is a good idea (that) It is a bad idea (that)

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The Subjunctive

answer

is used after the following verbs: to advise (that) to ask (that) to command (that) to demand (that) to desire (that) to insist (that) to propose (that) to recommend (that) to request (that) to suggest (that) to urge (that)

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hypothetical situation

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supposed for the sake of argument, an example., tells what would happen if something else were to happen first, uses past subjunctive: if clause (si + past subjunctive) result clause (conditional) What if....

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Topic sentence

answer

a sentence that states the topic of its paragraph, A sentence, most often appearing at the beginning of a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's idea and often unites it with the work's thesis. The controlling sentence in the paragraph.

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Controlling topic

answer

The point the writer makes about the topic., what the author wants you to know or understand about the topic, clarifies the author's focus

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signal

answer

any incitement to action, anything that serves to direct, guide, or warn, a sound or action that sends a message.

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development

answer

the act of improving a prototype outlined paragraph by expanding, enlarging, and refining the state in which facts and thoughts are defined, organized, and communicated to the audience.

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coherence

answer

logical and orderly and consistent relation of parts, quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle, a principle demanding that the parts of any composition be so arranged that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible, easy to understand

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Chronological

answer

the science that deals with determining details and events, arranges speech topic according to the sequential order in which events or steps occurred When you use this pattern, you discuss events, problems or processes in the sequence of time in which they take place or should take place (past to present or present to future). This commonly used pattern is used in writing histories, tracing the evolution of processes, recording problem conditions, and documenting situations that evolve over time. This approach is also used in official biographies, which are written in chronological order because they serve as a history of the member's professional career.

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descriptive

answer

...

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spatial

answer

When using this pattern, you'll start at some point in space and proceed in sequence to other points. The pattern is based on a directional strategy—north to south, east to west, clockwise or counterclockwise, bottom to top, above and below, etc. Make sure to use appropriate transitions to indicate spatial relationships— to the left, farther to the left, still farthermost to the left; adjacent to, a short distance away, etc. These signal the flow of the communication; if missing, your audience can easily become confused or disoriented.

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physical analysis

answer

...

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process analysis

answer

...

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analogy

answer

...

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Topical classification

answer

to present groups of ideas, objects or events by categories. This is a commonly used pattern to present general statements followed by numbered listings of subtopics to support, explain, or expand the statements. A topical pattern usually follows some logical order that reflects the nature of the material and the purpose of the communication. For example, if you are giving a briefing on helicopters, you might separate them into light, medium, and heavy lift capabilities and briefly describe the weight limits for each category. You could begin with the lightest capability and move to the heaviest or begin with the heaviest and move to the lightest. Tip: To help your readers absorb complex or unfamiliar material, consider organizing your material to move from the most familiar to the unfamiliar or from the simplest category to the most complex. When using this pattern, experiment to find the arrangement that will be most comfortable for your audience.

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division

answer

...

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enumeration

answer

...

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comparison

answer

Use this style when you need to discuss similarities and/or differences between topics, concepts, or ideas. When you are describing similarities and differences, it often helps the reader to see a point-bypoint comparison of the two items. if you were writing a document that compares and contrasts certain characteristics of the something red and the color blue, you might go item by item, discussing similarities and differences between the two as you go. TO COMPARE IDEAS like just as similar this

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contrast

answer

...

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climactic

answer

...

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anticlimactic

answer

...

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general

answer

...

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particular

answer

...

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opinion

answer

...

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reason

answer

...

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problem and solution

answer

You can use this pattern to identify and describe a problem and one or more possible solutions, or an issue and possible techniques for resolving the issue. Discuss all facets of the problem—its origin, its characteristics, and its impact. When describing the proposed solution, include enough support to convince your readers the solution is practical and cost effective. After presenting your solution, you may want to identify immediate actions required to implement the solution. The problem/solution pattern may be used in several variations: • One Solution: Discuss the problem and follow with the single, most logical solution. • Multiple Solutions: Discuss the problem, several possible solutions, the effects of each and your recommendation. • Multiple Solutions, Pro-Con: This popular format includes a discussion of the advantages (\"Pros\") and disadvantages (\"Cons\") of each solution. Remember that a problem-solution pattern is not a format for a personal attack on an adversary; it's simply a systematic approach to use in persuading people either to accept your ideas or to modify their own ideas.

question

answer

...

question

answer

...

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cause and effect

answer

You can use this pattern to show how one or more ideas, actions or conditions lead to other ideas, actions or conditions. Two variations of this pattern are possible: (1) begin with the effect, then identify the causes; or (2) begin with the causes, then identify the effects. The technique you use depends on the context of your discussion. Sometimes an effect-to-cause approach is used when your purpose is to identify WHY something happened. When might you use this approach? Let's say you are the president of the Safety Investigation Board following a fatal aircraft mishap (the effect). Your report might begin by describing the mishap itself, and then explain the factors that led up to the mishap and conclude with your determination of one or more causes for the effect. Sometimes a cause-to-effect pattern is used when your purpose is to explain how current actions or conditions (causes) may produce future consequences (effects). Be careful to avoid faulty logic traps when writing about cause and effect. You're guilty of a false cause fallacy when you assume one event causes a second event merely because it precedes the second event. You're guilty of a single cause fallacy when you assume only one factor caused an outcome, when in fact there are multiple causes.

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dialogue

answer

...

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narrative

answer

...

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anecdotal

answer

...

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introductory

answer

...

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transitional

answer

...

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conclusion

answer

occurring at or forming an end or termination, to bring to an end, The final analysis; What more do I want my reader to know?; Sum it up; Reflect; Do not repeat key words; Let with a concluding transition, usually the last sentence in a paragraph; sums up topic idea, to influence policy and recommendations, requires theorist to be specific identify important/salient beliefs formulate predictions guidance to be persuasive, Restates argument , the last paragraph of a persuasive essay. It includes a call for action and an important strong thought the writer wants the reader to leave with. It includes no new information., the \"then\" part of a conditional statement

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summery

answer

belonging to or characteristic of or occurring in summer

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paragraph structure

answer

1: topic sentence, 2-4: supporting details, 5: clincher, a framework that brings order and purpose to a group of sentences, intro-clincher, thesis statement body 1,2,3,4... topic sentence, supporting facts, transition, conclusion, All paragraphs that you write in this class must have an introduction-also known as a topic sentence. Your topic sentence is your promise to your reader, and you must keep your promise. A well-organized paragraph supports and develops a single controlling idea, and you topic sentence lets the reader know what you will write about. The topic sentence also previews the structure of the your paper. Keep your promise!

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sentence constructions

answer

parallelism

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parallelism

answer

similarity by virtue of correspondence, the use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have similar grammatical form

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simple sentence

answer

Sentence having only a subject and a verb construction , having few parts, without descriptive embellishment, a sentence having no coordinate clauses or subordinate clauses

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compound sentence / s-v-c-s-v

answer

s-v-con-s-v; a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions

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complex

answer

s-lv

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compound-complex,

answer

two independent clauses and at least one subordinate, A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

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adjective complement

answer

Describes direct object, describing what it has become or been called.

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s-v

answer

subject/verb agreement, subject/verb agreement s+v+do

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Subject-Verb-Object /s-v-o

answer

s-v-o; subject does the action, verb transfers it to object, and object receives it, E.g. I like rice., in this type of sentence the subject does the action to someone or something, which is the direct object,Verb will be a transitive verb in the active voice. I bought a coat. She invited him.

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Subject-Adjective-Verb

answer

s-ly-v; Subject-Adjective-Verb;she also needs, S strongly recommend, linking verbs link the subject with a word that compliments th subject, if the word is a noun it is called a predicate noun (if adjective, a predicate adjective)

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subject complement

answer

is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject., the name of a grammatical unit that is comprised of predicate moninatives and predicate adjectives, The word or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes the subject or the sentence by either renaming it or describing it

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coordinate clauses

answer

two clauses that have equal importance. ex. the ice melted. the sun came out. \"the ice melted and the sun came out.\" occur in sentences where there are two or more independant clauses. They're joined together by words like 'and' 'or' 'but' s-v-con-s-v / s-v-do

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Subject+Verb+Pronoun (Prepositional Phrase) / s+v+pn (pp)

answer

Follow Action Verbs and Receive the action of the verb She sent me a postcard, Follow action verbs and precede DO, s+v+pn (pp) / s+v+do \"goats have cages that surround them.\"

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Pronoun

answer

takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it

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function

answer

the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group, the special purpose something is used for, The kind of action or activity proper to a person, thing, or institution; the purpose for which something is designed or exists; role.

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clarity

answer

free from obscurity and easy to understand, clearness in thought or expression, clearness or lucidity as to perception or understanding; freedom from indistinctness or ambiguity. written with precision.

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logical consistency

answer

a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the internal logic in the theoretical statements, a measure of how well data features represent real-world features, in particular with respect to topology, Theories should make sense, be clear, and not contradict.

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internal logic

answer

the cultural beliefs that give a context to a behavior, custom, or artifact, What happens in the story makes sense in the story, the rules which will govern the film in question-- usually established at the beginning of the movie

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evaluating theories

answer

1. Parsimony: As simple as possible. 2. Breadth: How many different kinds of observations can your theory explain, how broad a theory is. 3. Generativity: How many people want to test your theory, it has to be usable, a theory that doesn't generate research is a bad theory., generate research questions about the relationship between variables that can be addressed by the correlational research design, *nature vs nurture

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theory

answer

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events, a belief that can guide behavior, a tentative theory about the natural world, , a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations,

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substantiated

answer

supported or established by evidence or proof, verified, to give substance or form to; proved true with evidence, verified, , Backed up

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explanation

answer

a statement that makes something comprehensible by describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc., an expression that purports to shed light on some event or phenomenon, A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present or past form. Act of telling and showing why., Discussion that helps clarify a topic or demonstrates how a process works

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examine

answer

consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning, question closely, put to the test, as for its quality, or give experimental use to, Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue, Consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning.

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assumptions

answer

Premises for which no proof or evidence is offered., opinions and beliefs, often unstated, that direct our choice of ideas, support, writing strategies and language, the taken-for-granted notions of how something should be

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clincher

answer

concluding sentence; restates the paragraphs main idea. It may also summarize the paragraph's main points, reveal and insight the writer has gained or suggest a course of action., a point or fact or remark that settles something conclusively, Wrap Up Entire Paragraph

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Analyze Purpose and Audience

answer

Focus and understand your audience knowledge Your purpose: to direct, inform, persuade or inspire Your purpose statement: one sentence that captures your bottom line

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Conduct Research

answer

Remember: information must be objective -Non-biased -Factual, The analysis of data collected from a homogeneous group of subjects who meet study inclusion and exclusion criteria for the purpose of answering specific research questions or testing specified hypotheses

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introduction

answer

must capture your audience's attention, establish rapport and announce your purpose. sets the stage and tone for your message. Although the content and length of your introduction may vary with the assignment, the introduction should, at a minimum, clearly state your purpose (\"bottom line\") and the direction you plan to take the audience. • Stage-setting remarks set the tone of the communication, capture the audience's attention and encourage them to read further. Stage setting remarks are optional, so you can omit them in very short messages or in messages where you don't want to waste words. • The purpose statement is the one sentence you'd keep if you had only one. It specifically states your purpose, thesis or main point. • The overview is like a good roadmap—it clearly presents your main points, previews your paragraph sequence and ties your main points to your purpose.

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body

answer

must be an effective sequence of ideas that flow logically in a series of paragraphs, the heart of your message. It includes your main ideas about your subject and supporting details under each main idea. typically consists of several paragraphs. The total number of paragraphs (and overall length of the body) will depend on your purpose and subject. As a general rule, write a separate paragraph for each main idea—you might confuse your reader if you have two or more main ideas in a single paragraph. In a longer communication, you may find it necessary to use more than one paragraph to cover one main point or idea.

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conclusion

answer

must summarize the main points stated in the body and close smoothly. The conclusion is the last and often neglected part of a well-arranged communication. Sometimes inexperienced writers stop writing as soon as they finish discussing their last main idea. That's not an effective conclusion. The conclusion is your last chance to summarize your communication and give your audience a sense of closure. An effective conclusion often summarizes the overall theme and main points discussed in the body. If you have a simple, straightforward purpose, you might want to emphasize it by restating it in slightly different words in the conclusion. If you have a complicated purpose or a long, involved communication, you'll probably need to emphasize your main ideas and state your proposals or recommendations.

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TO SHOW TIME

answer

immediately presently nearly a ... later meantime meanwhile afterward next as of today this year, however a little later then last year next week tomorrow as of now finally

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TO CONTRAST IDEAS

answer

but yet nevertheless however still conversely on the one hand instead of neither of these (to) (on) the contrary rather than no matter what much less as in contrast otherwise on the other hand in the (first) (second) place nor according to

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TO RELATE THOUGHTS

answer

indeed anyway, anyhow elsewhere nearby above all even these beyond in other words for instance of course in short in sum yet in reality that is by consequence notwithstanding nonetheless as a general rule understandably traditionally the reason, of course the lesson here is from all information at best naturally in the broader sense to this end in fact

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TO COMPARE IDEAS

answer

like just as similar this

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TO SHOW RESULTS

answer

therefore as a result thus consequently hence

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TO ADD IDEAS

answer

first, second, next, last, etc. in addition additionally moreover furthermore another besides clear, too, is the answer does not only lie to all that more than anything else here are some ... facts now, of course, there are now however

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Internal transitions

answer

improve the flow of sentences, within a paragraph are one or more related words that show the relationship between ideas within a paragraph. Woven skillfully into your writing, internal transitions help your reader follow your line of thought. \"First go home and then clean your room.\" repetition of key words at the beginning of individual sentences

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external transitions

answer

link separate paragraphs together within the body of your communication.

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CLICHÉS

answer

Clichés are expressions that have lost their impact because they have been overused. Strive for originality in your choice of words and phrases.

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accept

answer

verb, receive

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except

answer

verb or preposition, omitting or leaving out

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advice

answer

noun, counsel given, an opinion

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FOCUS Principles

answer

Focused - Address the issue, the whole issue, and nothing but the issue. Organized - Systematically present your information and ideas. Clear - Communicate with clarity and make each word count. Understanding - Understand your audience and its expectations. Supported - Use logic and support to make your point.

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Plural subjects take plural verbs and singular subjects take singular verbs

answer

Another way to state this rule using grammatical terms is \"Subjects and verbs must agree in number.\"

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identify the subject of a sentence, determine whether it's singular or plural, and then choose a verb in the same number and keep it near its subject.

answer

The key to avoiding most problems in subject-verb agreement is to

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Phrases between the subject and verb

answer

do not change the requirement that the verb must agree in number with its subject.

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A linking verb

answer

agrees with its subject, not with its complement.

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compound subject

answer

consists of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by one of these conjunctions: and, but, or, for or nor. Some compound subjects are plural; others are not.

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plural verb.

answer

If two nouns are joined by and, they typically take a

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nearest it

answer

If two nouns are joined by or, nor, or but, the verb should agree in number with the subject

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Use a singular verb

answer

for a compound subject that is preceded by each or every.

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Use a singular verb

answer

for a compound subject whose parts are considered a single unit

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Use singular verbs

answer

with most indefinite pronouns

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most indefinite pronouns

answer

another, anybody, anything, each, everyone, everybody, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, one, no one, someone, somebody and something.

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antecedent

answer

a preceding occurrence or cause or event, the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers., The word or phrase to which a pronoun refers

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Transition

answer

needed for coherence

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Informative briefing

answer

Purpose is to keep listener abreast of the current situation and supply specific information. • Designed to inform the listener and gain his understanding • Deals with High priority facts and information requiring immediate action Complex information on complicated plans, systems, statistics, or visuals Controversial information requiring explanation • May have conclusions or recommendations

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Decision briefing

answer

Purpose is to produce an answer to a question or obtain a decision on a specific problem. • Briefer must be prepared to present Assumptions Facts Alternative solutions Reasons/rationale for recommended solutions(s) Coordination involved Visual information • Briefer states he/she is looking for a decision; asks for decision if one is not forthcoming at conclusion. • Advises appropriate staff elements of commander's decision after the briefing.

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FORMING:

answer

When a team is forming, members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior. This is a stage of transition from individual to member status, and of testing the leader's guidance both formally and informally. Because there is so much going on to distract the members' attention in the beginning, the team accomplishes little, if anything, that concerns its project goals. Don't despair and flush your project down the toilet! This is perfectly normal!

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STORMING

answer

Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the team. You may ask yourself, \"What was I thinking?\" The team members begin to realize the task is different and more difficult than they imagined, becoming testy, blameful, or overzealous. Impatient about the lack of progress, but still too inexperienced to know much about decision making or the scientific approach, members argue about just what actions the team should take. They try to rely solely on their personal and professional experience, resisting any need for collaborating with other team members. Their behavior means team members have little energy to spend on progressing towards the team's goal. Still, they are beginning to understand one another.

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decision making

answer

the cognitive process of reaching a decision, evaluating alternatives and making choices among them, The process by which managers respond to opportunities and threats by analyzing options and making determinations about specific organizational goals and courses of action.

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scientific approach

answer

another name for the classical theory of formal curiosity, skeptical, objective, and critical thinking of organizations , A testable hypothesis, a reproducible experiment that can be replicated by other scientists, an operationalized definition (observable and measureable) of the concept under study, Observations, Hypothesis, Experiment, Model (Theory), Further Experimentation

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NORMING

answer

During this stage, members reconcile competing loyalties and responsibilities. They accept the team, team ground rules (or \"norms\"), their roles in the team, and the individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative. As team members begin to work out their differences, they now have more time and energy to spend on the project. Thus, they are able to at last start making significant strides.

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PERFORMING

answer

By this stage, the team has settled its relationships and expectations. They can begin performing—diagnosing and solving problems, and choosing and implementing changes. At last team members have discovered and accepted each other's strengths and weaknesses, and learned what their roles are. The team is now an effective, cohesive unit. You can tell when your team has reached this stage because you start getting a lot of work done—finally!

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ACTION VERB

answer

Accomplished Compared Compelled Competed Compiled Completed Composed Comprehend Computed Conceived Concentrated Conducted Conformed Confronted Considered Consolidated Consulted Contacted Continued Contract Contributed Controlled Cooperate Coordinated Created Cultivated Delegated Demonstrated Deterred Developed Devised Displayed Dominated Drove Elicited Embodied Emerged Emulated Encouraged Endeavored Energized Enforced Enhanced Enriched Ensured Escalated Established Exceeded Excelled Expanded Expedited Exploited Explored Fabricated Facilitated Focused Forced Formulated Generated Grasped Helped Honed Identified Ignited Impassioned Implemented Improved Initiated Inspired Insured Invigorated Kindled Launched Maintained Manipulated Motivated Organized Originated Overcame Oversaw Performed Perpetuated Persevered Persuaded Planned Practiced Prepared Produced Projected Promoted Prompted Propagated Propelled Quantified Rallied Recognized Rectified Refined Reformed Regenerated Rehabilitated Rejuvenated Renewed Renovated Reorganized Required Resolved Revived Sacrificed Scrutinized Sought Solved Sparked Spearheaded Stimulated Strengthened Strove Supervised Supported Surpassed Sustained Transformed Utilize Achieved Acquired Acted Activated Actuated Adapts Adhered Adjusted Administered Advised Agitated Analyzed Anticipated Applied Appraised Approved Aroused Arranged Articulated Assembled Asserted Assessed Assigned Assisted Assured Attained Attend Authorized Averted Bolstered Brought Build Calculated Capitalized Catalyzed Chaired Challenged Clarified Collaborate Collected Commanded Communicated

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Adverbs

answer

Actively Aggressively Anxiously Ardently Articulately Assertively Avidly Boldly Competitively Compulsively Creatively Decisively Eagerly Energetically Enterprisingly Enthusiastically Expeditiously Exuberantly Feverishly Fiercely Forcefully Frantically Impulsively Incisively Interactively Intensely Powerfully Promptly Prosperously Provocatively Quickly Relentlessly Restlessly Spiritedly Spontaneously Swiftly Tenaciously Vigorously Vigilant

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Helping verbs

answer

can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would

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forms of be:

answer

be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being

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forms of have

answer

have, has, had, having

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forms of do

answer

do, does, did

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Linking verbs

answer

forms of verbs associated with five senses: look, sound, smell, feel, taste

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Prepositions

answer

(use them sparingly): over, under, in, during, within, etc.

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Use a

answer

before consonant sounds

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Use an

answer

before vowel sounds

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Adjective

answer

Describes or limits a noun or pronoun.

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Adverbs

answer

Modifies or limits a verb, adjective or another adverb and answers \"When? Where? Why? How much? How far? To what degree?\"

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Antecedent

answer

Noun, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers or replaces.

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Appositive

answer

Word, phrase or clause preceding or renaming a noun.

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Article

answer

Small set of words used with nouns to limit or give definiteness to the application. <a, an, the>

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Case

answer

Forms that nouns and pronouns take when they fit into different functions of the sentence. There are three: Nominative—for subjects, predicate nominatives and appositives. Objective—for objects and their appositives. Possessive—to show ownership, hence adjectival, functions.

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Clause

answer

A group of related words containing a subject and a verb

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Conjunctions

answer

Connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences (and, or, but, nor).

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Interjection

answer

Words used to express emotion or surprise (ah, alas, great, hooray, help, etc.) Strong interjections are punctuated with an exclamation point. (Wow! That's profound.) Milder interjections are often set off by commas, usually at the beginning of a sentence. <Oh, I guess it wasn't. Ouch, that hurts.>

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Modifier

answer

Words or groups of words that limit or describe other words. If improperly placed, modifiers can confuse the reader or suggest an illogical relationship

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can

answer

Primarily expresses ability; cannot is used to deny permission.

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could

answer

Sometimes the past tense of can. Otherwise, could expresses possibility, doubt or something dependent on unreal conditions.

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may

answer

Originally meant \"have the power\" (compare the noun might). Now it means \"permission.\" Also, may is used to indicate possibility. May is also used in wishes.

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USE AN APOSTROPHE

answer

- to create possessive forms of certain words - to form contractions or to stand in for missing letters - to form plurals for certain letters and abbreviations - to mark a quote within a quote - in technical writing to indicate units of measurement

question

Use an apostrophe to create possessive forms of nouns and abbreviations used as nouns.

answer

Add 's to singular or plural nouns that do not end with an s. Add 's to singular nouns that end with an s.

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USE A COLON

answer

To separate an introductory statement from explanatory or summarizing material that follows when there is no coordinating conjunction or transitional expression. (Capitalize the first word of the expression that follows the colon if it is the dominant element and is a complete sentence. For additional details, see the \"Capitalization\" section.) Living in base housing has many advantages: People can walk to work, shopping is convenient, and there are organized activities for the children. The board consists of three officials: a director, an executive director, and a recording secretary.

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USE A COLON

answer

When a sentence contains an expression such as following or as follows or is followed by a list or enumerated items. [Notice the capitalization and punctuation.] The new directive achieved the following results: better morale and improved relations. Results were as follows: better morale, less work, and more pay. Consider these advantages when making your decision: 1. You won't have to be somewhere at 0800 every day. 2. You can get more involved in community activities. 3. You can pursue hobbies you haven't had time for in the last year.

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Modal Auxiliary

answer

Verbs that are used with a principal verb that are characteristically used with a verb of predication and that in English differs formally from other verbs in lacking -s or -ing forms.

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can

answer

Primarily expresses ability; cannot is used to deny permission.

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could

answer

Sometimes the past tense of can. Otherwise, could expresses possibility, doubt or something dependent on unreal conditions.

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may

answer

Originally meant \"have the power\" (compare the noun might). Now it means \"permission.\" Also, may is used to indicate possibility. May is also used in wishes.

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might

answer

Sometimes functions as simple past tense of may. Often it is used to express a more doubtful possibility than may does. Might is also used after contrary-to-fact conditions.

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shall

answer

Shall expresses futurity in the first person;

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should

answer

should does also, but it adds a slight coloring of doubt that the action will take place. Notice the difference in meaning in these sentences. In indirect discourse should replaces the shall of direct discourse. Many speakers who use shall in the first person use would in preference to should. Should is used to express likelihood. Should expresses obligation.

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will

answer

is the common future auxiliary used in the second and third persons. In addition it is used with special emphasis to express determination.

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would

answer

Would still indicates past time in expressing determination. Would expresses customary action in past time. Would points to future time, but adding doubt or uncertainty. Notice the difference in meaning. Would replaces will in indirect discourse.

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must

answer

Expresses necessity or obligation. It is somewhat stronger than should. Must also expresses likelihood.

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ought

answer

Originally the past tense of owe, but now it points to a present or future time. Ought expresses necessity or obligation, but with less force. See the difference. Ought is nearly the equivalent of should.

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dare

answer

Originally a modal only, it is now used primarily in negatives or questions.

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need

answer

Not originally a modal auxiliary, need is now used to mean have to. In the meaning \"lack,\" need is always a regular verb.

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be able to

answer

Used instead of can or could to indicate the ability as a fact rather than a mere potentiality. It is used also to avoid the ambiguity that may result from using can to express permission.

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be to

answer

Indicates future events but hints at uncertainty.

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have to

answer

Commonly substitutes for must. It is a stronger expression of necessity.

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Nouns

answer

Names a person, place, thing, action or abstract idea. <woman, office, pencil, game, Ohio, Maxwell AFB, democracy, freedom>

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Abstract Noun

answer

nouns that name qualities rather than material things. <love, danger>

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Collective Noun

answer

nouns that are singular in form but plural in meaning; names a group of persons or things. <audience, army, company, flock, committee, trio>

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Concrete Noun

answer

nouns that can be seen or touched. <table, book>

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Proper Noun

answer

nouns that are capitalized and name specific persons, places, or things.

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Number

answer

Shows the singular or plural of nouns, pronouns, or verbs.

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Object

answer

Noun or pronoun that is affected by the verb.

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Parts of Speech

answer

The basic building blocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, interjections, and conjunctions

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Passive Voice

answer

Shows the subject as receiver of the action.

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Person

answer

Pronouns that denote the speaker (first person; I, we), the person spoken to (second person, you), or the person spoken of (third person; she, they).

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Phrases

answer

Groups of words without a subject or predicate that function as a unit (adjective, adverbial, gerund, or infinitive phases).

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Plagiarism

answer

Using someone else's writing as if it were your own. This serious offense can lead to severe professional and legal consequences. If using another person's material, identify the borrowed passage and credit the author.

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Predicate

answer

Tells what the subject does or what is done to the subject, or the state of being the subject is in.

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Preposition

answer

Shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. <by, at, up, down, between, among, through>

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Pronouns

answer

Substitutes for a noun.

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Definite Pronouns

answer

includes I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and all of their forms.

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Indefinite Pronouns

answer

includes words like someone, no one, each, anyone, and anybody.

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Relative Pronouns

answer

includes words like who, whom, which, that.

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Sentence

answer

Expresses one complete thought with one subject and one verb; either or both may be compound.

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Complex Sentence

answer

contains one main clause and at least one subordinate clause.

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Compound Sentence

answer

contains two or more main clauses and no subordinate clauses.

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Subject

answer

Tells what the sentence is about; the person, place or thing that performs the action or that has the state of being indicated by the verb.

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Tense

answer

Shows the time of the action, condition or state of being expressed. The three tenses—past, present, future—can be expressed in the simple, perfect, or progressive.

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Verbals

answer

Past and present participle forms of the verbs that act as nouns or adjectives. There are three: Gerund, Infinitive, Participle.

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Gerund

answer

ends in -ing and functions as a noun. <talking, singing>

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Infinitive

answer

simple verb form used as a noun, adjective, or adverb and usually preceded by to.

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Participle

answer

used as an adjective and acts as a modifier in present (-ing), past (-ed, lost), and perfect (having lost) forms

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Verbs

answer

Expresses action or state of being of the sentence. There are six: Transitive Verbs, Intransitive Verbs, Linking Verbs, Auxiliary or Helping Verbs, Principal Verbs, Irregular Verbs.

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Transitive Verb

answer

transfers action from the subject to the object.

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Intransitive Verb

answer

transfers no action and is followed by an adverb or nothing.

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Linking Verb

answer

acts as an equal sign connecting the subject and the complement.

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Auxiliary or Helping Verb

answer

verb used with another verb to form voice or perfect and progressive tenses.

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Principal Verb

answer

last verb in a verb phrase.

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Irregular Verb

answer

verbs that form past tense and past participle differently: E.g. become became become break broke broken bring brought brought buy bought bought catch caught caught choose chose chosen

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Use a comma

answer

to separate three or more parallel words, phrases, or clauses in a series.

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closed punctuation

answer

includes the comma before the final and, or or nor. Will you go by car, train, or plane? You will not talk, nor do homework, nor sleep in my class.

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open punctuation

answer

excludes the comma before the final and, or, or nor. Will you go by car, train or plane? You will not talk, nor do homework nor sleep in my class.

question

Help Clarify Meaning

answer

The additional comma specified in closed punctuation may?

question

USE A COMMA

answer

With the coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, or nor when joining two or more independent clauses.

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No comma is needed

answer

if the sentence has one subject with a compound predicate connected with a coordinating conjunction because the second half of the sentence is not an independent clause.

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Use a comma

answer

Use a what, After introductory words such as yes, no, or oh? Yes, I'll do it. Oh, I see your point.

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Use a Comma

answer

To set off explanatory dates, addresses and place names; use a what? The change of command, 1 October 1996, was the turning point. The British prime minister lives at 10 Downing Street, London, England.

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Use a comma

answer

To set off statements such as he said, she replied, they answered, and she announced. She said, \"Welcome to the Chamber of Commerce. May I help you?\" She replied, \"I have an appointment with Lt Col Rick Jenkins at 10 a.m.\" NOTE: If a quotation functions as an integral part of a sentence, commas are unnecessary. They even considered \"No guts, no glory!\" as their slogan.

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Use a comma

answer

To set off names and titles used in direct address.

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Use a comma

answer

With afterthoughts (words, phrases or clauses added to the end of a sentence). It isn't too late to get tickets, is it? Send them as soon as possible, please. NOTE: The word too does not require a comma if located at the end of a sentence

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Use a comma

answer

To indicate omission of words in repeating a construction. We had a tactical reserve; now, nothing. [The comma replaces we have.]

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Use a comma

answer

Before for used as a conjunction. She didn't go to the party, for she cannot stand smoke-filled rooms.

question

Use a comma

answer

To separate repeated words. That was a long, long time ago. Well, well, look who's here.

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Use a comma

answer

With titles following personal names. (Jr. and Sr. are set off by commas; 2d, 3d, II, and III are not.) Lee B. Walker, Sr. Henry Ford II William Price, Esq James Stokes 3d In text: Lee B. Walker, Sr., is ... NOTE: When you must show possession drop the comma following Jr. and Sr. Lee Walker, Sr.'s car is ...

question

Use a comma

answer

When names are reversed. Adams, Angie Middleton, Mary Baldwin, Sherwood, Jr. Parks, James, III Brown, Carolyn Price, William, Esq

question

Use a comma

answer

To prevent confusion or misreading.

question

No space before. One space after, unless a closing quotation mark immediately follows the comma. No space after within a number.

answer

When using spacing and commas

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

To indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in thought. He is going—no, he's turning back. Our new building should be—will be—completed by June 2004.

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

To give special emphasis to the second independent clause in a compound sentence. Our new, but used, pickup truck is great—it's economical too! You'll double your money with this plan—and I'll prove it!

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Use an em Dash (—)

answer

To emphasize single words. Girls—that's all he ever thinks about! They're interested in one thing only—profit—nothing else matters.

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Use an em Dash (—)

answer

To emphasize or restate a previous thought. One day last week—Monday, I think—Congress finally voted on the amendment.

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Use an em Dash (—)

answer

Before summarizing words such as these, they, and all when those words summarize a series of ideas or list of details. A tennis racket, swimsuit and shorts—these are all you'll need for the weekend. Faculty, staff and students—all are invited.

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

In place of commas to set off a nonessential element requiring special emphasis. There's an error in one paragraph—the second one. We will ensure all students—as well as faculty members—are informed of the Chief of Staff's visit.

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Use an em Dash (—)

answer

To set off a nonessential element when the nonessential element contains internal commas. Certain subjects—American government, calculus and chemistry—are required courses.

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Use an em Dash (—)

answer

Instead of parentheses when a nonessential item requires strong emphasis (dashes emphasize; parentheses de-emphasize). Call Lieutenant Colonels Kessler, Sims, and Forbes—the real experts—and get their opinion.

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

In place of a colon for a strong, but less formal, break in introducing explanatory words, phrases or clauses. Our arrangement with the Headquarters USAF is simple—we provide the camera-ready copy and they handle the printing and distribution.

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

With quotation marks. Place the dash outside the closing quotation mark when the sentence breaks off after the quotation and inside the closing quotation mark to indicate the speaker's words have broken off abruptly. If I hear one more person say, \"See what I'm saying!?\"— Thomas Hardy said, \"When I get to 25 Barberry Street, I'll —\"

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence contains a question or exclamation that is set off by dashes, put the appropriate punctuation mark before the closing dash. I'll attend Friday's meeting—is it being held at the same place?—but I'll have to leave early for another appointment. He's busy now, sir—wait, don't go in there!—I'll call you when he's free.

question

Use an em Dash (—)

answer

With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence abruptly breaks off before the end of a question or exclamation, put the end punctuation mark immediately following the dash. Shall I do it or —? Look out for the —!

question

Use an En Dash (-)

answer

Before the source of a quotation or credit line in typed material (use an en dash in printed material). The ornaments of a home are the friends who frequent it. - Anonymous

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Use an En Dash (-)

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To indicate inclusive numbers (dates, page numbers, time) when not introduced by the word from or between. Some instructions are on pages 15-30 of this article and from pages 3 to 10 in the attached brochure. My appointment is 0800-0900. I will be there between 0745 and 0800. She worked in the Pentagon from 1979 to 1996 and she said the 1990-1996 period went by quickly.

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Use an En Dash (-)

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In a compound adjective when one element has two words or a hyphenated word. New York-London flight Air Force-wide changes quasi-public-quasi-judicial body

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before or after

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No space ___ __ ___ an em dash (—) or en dash (-) within a sentence.

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after

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Two spaces ___ the em dash at the end of a sentence that breaks off abruptly (rule 10)— unless manuscript format and using right justified, then one space after.

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Use an Exclamation mark

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At the end of a sentence or elliptical expression (condensed sentence, key words left out) to express strong emotion (surprise, disbelief, irony, dissent, urgency, amusement, enthusiasm). Congratulations on your new son! I suppose you consider that another \"first\"! Fantastic show!

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Use an Exclamation mark

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In parentheses within a sentence to emphasize a particular word. He lost 67(!) pounds in 6 months. She said what(!)?

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Use a hyphen

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When dividing a word at the end of a line. When in doubt about the proper place to divide a word, consult a dictionary and apply the guidelines Use a hyphen to indicate the continua- tion of a word divided at the end of a line.

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Use a hyphen

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To join unit modifiers. When you abbreviate the unit of measure, omit the hyphen. 4-hour sortie, 4 hr sortie long-term loan rust-resistant cover 24-gallon tank, 24 gal. tank

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Use a hyphen

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When expressing the numbers 21 through 99 in words and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element. Twenty-one people attended. Twenty-one people attended with at least 2 that failed to show up. Eighty-nine or ninety miles from here there's an outlet mall. I kept their 3-year-old child while they were away. There will be a 10-minute delay.

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Use a hyphen

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To join single capital letters to nouns or participles. U-boat H-bomb X-height U-turn T-shirt T-bone D-mark E-mail

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Use a hyphen

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To indicate two or more related compound words having a common base (suspended hyphen). It will be a 12- to 15-page document. The cruise line offers 2-, 3-, and 7-day cruises at special group rates. Long- and short-term money rates are available.

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Use a hyphen

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To join capital letter(s) and numbers in system designators and numerical identifiers. F-117 B-1B F-16 KC-10 Su-24TK T-38

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Use a hyphen

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To form compound words and phrases. Some compound words are written as two words (post office, air brake, Mother Nature, fellow traveler), some as one (manpower, masterpiece, aircraft), some as a combination of words and joined by hyphens (father-in-law, great-uncle, secretary-treasurer, governor-general, men-of-war, grant-in-aid, mother-of-pearl), and some multiple-word compounds that include a preposition and a description (jack-of-all-trades, but flash in a pan and master of none). There's a growing trend to spell compound words as one word once widely accepted and used. However, sometimes the way you use a compound word or phrase will dictate how you write it—as one word, with a hyphen, or as two separate words. When in doubt, consult an up-to-date dictionary or treat as two words if the guidelines on the next pages don't fit.

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Use a hyphen

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Use a hyphen with words and phrases that are combined to form a unit modifier immediately preceding the word modified (except with an adverb ending in ly). Do not hyphenate these phrases when they follow the noun. an up-to-date report; this report is up to date; a $500-a-week salary; a salary of $500 a week decision-making process; the process of decision making; red-faced man; the man with the red face X-rated movies; movies that are X rated; the X-ray equipment; the X-ray showed a well-known author; the author is well known a first-come, first-served basis; on the basis of first come, first served a highly organized group; a completely balanced meal

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Use a hyphen

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Use a hyphen when two or more proper names are combined to form a one-thought modifier and when two adjectives are joined by the word and or or. Montgomery-Atlanta-Washington flight life-and-death situation black-and-white terms cause-and-effect hypothesis yes-or-no answer go-no-go decision

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Use a hyphen

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Use a hyphen when spelling the word solid creates a homonym. re-cover [cover again]; recover [to regain] re-creation [create again]; recreation [play] re-count [count again]; recount [to detail] pre-position [position again]; preposition re-create [create again]; recreate [refresh] [word that forms a phrase] un-ionized [substance]; unionized [to organize] re-mark [mark again]; remark [say] re-sign [sign again]; resign [quit] multi-ply [as in fabric]; multiply [arithmetic function] re-start [start again]; restart [to start anew] co-op [cooperative]; coop [to confine] re-treat [treat again]; retreat [withdraw]

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Use a hyphen

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to avoid doubling a vowel when the last letter of the prefix \"anti,\" \"multi,\" and \"semi\" is the same as the first letter of the word. Also, use a hyphen when the second element is a capitalized word or a number. anti-inflammatory; anti-Nazi; antiaircraft semi-icing; semi-Americanized; semiofficial multi-industry; multielement; multimillion pre-1914, post-World War II; ultra-German

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Use a hyphen

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to join duplicate prefixes. re-redirect sub-subcommittee super-superlative

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USE ITALICS

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In printed material to distinguish the titles of whole published works: books, pamphlets, bulletins, periodicals, newspapers, plays, movies, symphonies, poems, operas, essays, lectures, sermons, legal cases, and reports.

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Use parenthesis

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To enclose explanatory material (a single word, a phrase or an entire sentence) that is independent of the main thought of the sentence. The ACSC students (542 of them) will begin classes the second week of June. The results (see figure 3) were surprising.

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Use parenthesis

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To set off nonessential elements when commas would be inappropriate or confusing and dashes would be too emphatic. Mr. Henry Anderson, Jr., is the general manager of the Montgomery (Alabama) branch. [Parentheses are clearer than commas when a city-state expression is used as an adjective.] All the classes will meet three days a week (Mondays, Tuesdays and Thursdays). [Parentheses are used in place of commas because the nonessential element contains commas.] I suggest you contact Edward Clinton (a true professional) for his recommendation. [Parentheses used in place of dashes to de-emphasize the nonessential element.] Contact Ms. Louise Robinson—the manager of the house in Tuscaloosa—and ask her if a room is still available. [Dashes are used in place of parentheses for emphasis.]

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Use parenthesis

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To enclose enumerating letters or numerals within a sentence. Our goals are to (1) reduce the number of curriculum hours, (2) eliminate the 90-minute lunch period, and (3) reduce the number of personnel needed to accomplish the mission. Also, include the following when you file your medical costs: (a) hotel charges, (b) meal costs (including gratuities), and (c) transportation costs.

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Use parenthesis

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To enclose a nickname or a descriptive expression when it falls between a person's first and last names. However, when it precedes or replaces a person's first name, simply capitalize it. George Herman (Babe) Ruth Stonewall Jackson Major William F. (Clark) Kent the Iron Duke

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Use a period

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To end declarative and imperative sentences. His work is minimally satisfactory. Don't be late.

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Use a period

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To end an indirect question or a question intended as a suggestion or otherwise not requiring an answer. She wanted to know how to do it. He asked what the job would entail. Tell me how they did it.

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Use a period

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With certain abbreviations. Most abbreviations today are written without punctuation Ms. Miss [not an Sr. no. [number; could be confused abbreviation] with the word no] Mr. Dr. e.g. in. [inch; could be confused with the word in] Mrs. Jr. i.e. etc.

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Use a Question Mark

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To indicate the end of a direct question. Did he go with you? Will you be able to attend?

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Use a Question Mark

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With elliptical (shortened) questions and to express more than one question within a sentence. You rang? For what purpose? Was the speaker interesting? Convincing? Well versed? Who approved the sale? When? To whom? For what amount?

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Use a Question Mark

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After an independent question within a larger sentence. The question \"Who will absorb the costs?\" went unanswered. When will the reorganization take place? will surely be asked.

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Use a Question Mark

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To express doubt. They plan to purchase three(?) new Pentium computers with individual scanners for us. Jackie Baltzell and Gayle Magill have been associated with her since 1990(?).

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Use a Question Mark

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Use a question mark before a closing parenthesis only when it applies solely to the parenthetical item and the sentence ends in a different punctuation mark. At our next meeting (it's on the 16th, isn't it?), we'll elect a new president. As the gun opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement ceased. [Question marks were used within parentheses because sentences require a period at the end.] Are tickets still available (and can I get two), or is it too late? [Question mark is omitted within parentheses because sentence ends with a question mark.]

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Use a Question Mark

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A question mark is placed inside the closing quotation mark only when it applies to the quoted material or when the same punctuation is required for both the quotation and the sentence as a whole. She asked, \"Did you enjoy the trip?\" [Question mark belongs with quoted material.] Why did he ask, \"When does it start?\" [Question mark is same as ending punctuation.] Did you say, \"I'll help out\"? [Quoted material is not a question; therefore, question mark applies to the sentence as a whole.]

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Use a Question Mark

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When a question within a sentence is set off by dashes, place the question mark before the closing dash. The new class—isn't it called Super Seminar?—begins tomorrow.

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Use a Semicolon

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To separate independent clauses not connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, and so), and in statements too closely related in meaning to be written as separate sentences. The students were ready; it was time to go. It's true in peace; it's true in war. War is destructive; peace, constructive.

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Use a Semicolon

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Before transitional words and phrases (accordingly, as a result, besides, consequently, for example, furthermore, hence, however, moreover, namely, nevertheless, on the contrary, otherwise, that is, then, therefore, thus, and yet) when connecting two complete but related thoughts and a coordinating conjunction is not used. Follow these words and phrases with a comma. Do not use a comma after hence, then, thus, so and yet unless a pause is needed. Our expenses have increased; however, we haven't raised our prices. Our expenses have increased, however, and we haven't raised our prices. The decision has been made; therefore, there's no point in discussing it further. The decision has been made so there's no point in discussing it. The general had heard the briefing before; thus, he chose not to attend. Let's wait until next month; then we can get better result figures.

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Use a Semicolon

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To separate items in a series that contain commas (when confusion would otherwise result). If you want your writing to be worthwhile, organize it; if you want it to be easy to read, use simple words and phrases; and, if you want it to be interesting, vary your sentence and paragraph lengths. Those who attended the meeting were Colonels Jim Forsyth, Dean of Education; Michael Harris, Dean of Distance Learning; Mark Zimmerman, Chairman of Leadership and Communications Studies; and Phil Tripper, Chairman of Joint Warfare Studies.

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Use a Semicolon

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To precede words or abbreviations that introduce a summary or explanation of what has gone before in the sentence. We visited several countries on that trip; i.e., England, Ireland, France, Germany, and Finland. There are many things you must arrange before leaving on vacation; for example, mail pickup, pet care, yard care.

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Capitalize The First Word

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of every sentence. Twenty-one people attended the secret presentation given by the chief of staff. Nonessential government employees were furloughed from 14 to 19 November 2002.

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Capitalize The First Word

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of every sentence fragment treated as a complete sentence. Really? No! So much for that. More discussion. No agreement. Another hour wasted.

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Capitalize The First Word

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of direct questions and quotations placed within a sentence even if quotation marks are not used. The commander asked this question: How many of you are volunteers? The order read \"Attack at dawn.\"

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Capitalize The First Word

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of items shown in a list (using numbers, letters, or display dots) when a complete sentence introduces them. The commander listed the following responsibilities of liaison officers: a. Become familiar with the situation. b. Know the mission. c. Arrange for communications.

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Capitalize The First Word

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in the salutation and complimentary closing of a letter. Dear Mr. McBride Sincerely Respectfully yours

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a hyphen when the hyphenated word is followed by a proper noun or adjective. non-Latin speaking people

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is a proper noun or the pronoun I. Two courses are required: English and Economics.

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is word is the first word of a quoted sentence. When asked by his teacher to explain the difference between a sofa and a love seat, the nursery school boy had this to say: \"Don't reckon I know, ma'am, but you don't put your feet on either one.\"

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is expression after the colon is a complete sentence that is the dominant or more general element. A key principle: Nonessential elements are set off by commas; essential elements are not set off.

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is material following the colon consists of two or more sentences. There are several drawbacks to this: First, it ties up our capital for three years. Second, the likelihood of a great return on our investment is questionable.

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is material following the colon starts on a new line. They gave us two reasons: 1. They received the order too late. 2. It was Friday and nothing could be done until Monday.

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is material preceding the colon is an introductory word (NOTE, CAUTION, WANTED, HINT, or REMEMBER). WANTED: Three editorial assistants who know computers as well as editing and typesetting.

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Capitalize The First Word

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after a colon when the word is each line in a poem. (Always follow the style of the poem, however). I used to write quite poorly. My boss said it made him ill. But now he's feeling better 'Cuz I use The Tongue and Quill! - TSgt Keyes

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Do Not Capitalize

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the first word of a sentence enclosed in parentheses within another sentence unless the first word is a proper noun, the pronoun I, the first word of a quoted sentence, or begins a complete parenthetical sentence standing alone. The company finally moved (they were to have vacated 2 months ago) to another location. One of our secretaries (Carolyn Brown) will record the minutes of today's meeting. This is the only tree in our yard that survived the ice storm. (It's a pecan tree.)

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Do Not Capitalize

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part of a quotation slogan or motto if it is not capitalized in the original quotation. General MacArthur said that old soldiers \"just fade away.\"

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Do Not Capitalize

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the first word of an independent clause after a colon if the clause explains, illustrates or amplifies the thought expressed in the first part of the sentence. Essential and nonessential elements require altogether different punctuation: the latter should be set off by commas, whereas the former should not.

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Do Not Capitalize

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after a colon if the material cannot stand alone as a sentence. I must countersign all cash advances, with one exception: when the amount is less than $50. Three subjects were discussed: fund raising, membership, and bylaws.

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Capitalize

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all proper names (the official name of a person, place or thing). Porie and Tourcoing Anglo-Saxon Cliff Brow Judy Phillips-McDonald Rio Grande River Stratford-on-Avon the Capitol in DC the capital of Maine is ... Mönchengladbach US Constitution the Constitution the Alamo

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Capitalize

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a common noun or adjective that forms an essential part of a proper name, but not a common noun used alone as a substitute for the name of a place or thing. Statue of Liberty; the statue Potomac River; the river Air War College; the college Berlin Wall; the wall Washington Monument; the monument Vietnam Veterans Memorial; the memorial

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Not Capitalize

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If a common noun or adjective forming an essential part of a name becomes removed from the rest of the name by an intervening common noun or adjective, the entire expression is no longer a proper noun and is ___ ___. Union Station; union passenger station Eastern States; eastern farming states

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Capitalize

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all hyphenated words, except articles and short prepositions; coordinating conjunctions; second elements of prefixes (unless proper noun or proper adjective); and flat, sharp and natural after musical key symbols. English-Speaking Run-of-the-Mill Non-Christians Follow-Through Large-Sized Mat Post-Prezhnev Self-explanatory Ex-Governor Over-the-Hill Sayings Twenty-first Century One-eighth E-flat Concerto

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figures

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numbers 10 and above should be expressed in

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Words

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numbers one through nine should be expressed in

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scientific and statistical material

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all numbers are expressed in figures

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STATING THE RESEARCH QUESTION

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1. Name your topic: I am studying ... 2. Imply your question: Because I want to find out/show you who/how/why ... 3. State the rationale for the question and the project: In order to understand/explain how/why/what ... Once you have your focus narrowed, and you know just what you want to study, it is time to begin the hunt for what others have written on the same, or similar, subjects.

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Research Methodology Guidelines

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Use this approach if: Quantitative Qualitative 1. You believe that: There is an objective reality that can be measured or There are multiple possible realities constructed by different individuals 2. Your audience is: Familiar with/supportive of quantitative studies Familiar with/supportive of qualitative studies 3. Your research question is: Confirmatory, predictive Exploratory, interpretive 4. The available literature is: Relatively large Limited 5. Your research focus: Covers a lot of breadth Involves in-depth study 6. Your time available is: Relatively short Relatively long 7. Your ability/desire to work with people is: Medium to low High 8. Your desire for structure is: High Low 9. You have skills in the area(s) of: Deductive reasoning and statistics Inductive reasoning and attention to detail 10. Your writing skills are strong in the area of: Technical, scientific writing Literary, narrative writing

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indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.

answer

Abruptly, After, After a few days, After a long time, After a short time, After a while, After that, Afterward, All at once, All of the time, All the while, Always, As long as, As soon as, At first, At last, At length, At present, At that time, At the beginning, At the end, At that onset, At the same time, At this moment, At times, Before, Begin, By now, Just then, Last, Last of all, Lastly, Later, Later on, Later that day, Little by little,

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indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.

answer

Commence, Commencing, Concurrently, Consequently, Continually, Currently, Cyclically, Directly, During, Earlier, Embark, Eventually, Every time, Final, Finally, First, Following, Following that, Former, Formerly, Frequently, From this point, Generally, Gradual, Henceforth, Hereafter, Heretofore, Immediately, In an instant, In awhile, In conclusion, In the end, In the first place, In the future, In the last place, In the meantime, In the past, In the second place, In turn, In frequently, Initial, Instantly, Instantaneously, Intermittent,

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indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.

answer

Meanwhile, Momentarily, Never, Next, Not at all, Not long after, Not long ago, Now, Occasionally, Of late, Often, Often time, On the next occasion, Once, Once upon a time, Past, Periodically, Preceding, Present, Presently, Previously, Prior to, Promptly, Quick, Rarely, Recently, Repeatedly, Right after, Right away, Second, Seldom, Sequentially, Shorty, Simultaneously, Slow, So far, Some of the time, Some time, Soon, Soon after, Soon afterward, Sporadically, Starting with, Subsequently, Suddenly, Temporary, The latter, The next, The final, Then, Thereafter, This instant, Third, To begin with, To conclude, To finish, Today, Tomorrow, Twice, Uncommon, Ultimately, Until, Until now , Usually, When, While, Yesterday

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Words to replace SAID in your writing

answer

Accepted, Accused, Acknowledged, Acquiesced, Additionally, Added, Addressed, Ad-libbed, Admitted, Admonished, Advised, Advocated, Affirmed, Agreed, Alleged, Allowed, Alluded, Announced, Answered, Anticipated, Appealed, Approved, Argued, Articulated, Asked, Assented, Asserted, Assumed, Assured, Assured, Attested, Avowed.

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Words used to INTENSIFY

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\"...become intense or more intensive\" Above all, Accentuate, Act of increasing, Added to, Amp up, Amplify, Beef up, Boost, Consolidate, Deepen, Enhance, Exaggerate, Heighten, Increase in extent, Increase the contrast, Incremental, Intensifying, Magnify, Make stronger, More, More extreme, Redouble, Sharpen, Step up, Strengthen, To enlarge, To stress.

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Words that describe cause and effect

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\"...reason for an action...come into being\" Accordingly, After, As a result, Because, Because of this, Begin, Bring about, Bring on, By reason of, By the way, By-product, Cause, Caused by, Consequence, Consequently, Created, Due to, Effect, Effected, Eventually, Feedback, Following, For this reason, Further, Furthermore, Generate, Gradual, Hence, Impact, In conclusion, In fact, In view of, Incentive, Incidentally, Launched, Of course, On account of, Otherwise, Owing to, Produced, Reason, Result, Resulted in, Since, Started, Subsequently, The aftermath, The end product, The end result, The outcome, The ramifications, Then, There upon, Thus, To this end,

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words that COMPARE

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\"...to examine the character or qualities of esp. in order to discover resemblances or differences...\" A comparable aspect, Affinity, A strong resemblance, Akin, Also, Analogous to, Another similarity, As, As compared with, As well as, At the same time, Balance, By the same token, Coincide, Comparable, Comparatively, Compare, Conform, Consistent with, Correlate, Correspondingly, Exactly, Equal, Equally, Equally important, Equate, Equivalent, Harmonize, Homogeneous, Identical, Identically, In comparison, In like manner, In much the same way, In relation to, In similar fashion, In the same manner, In the same way, Just the same, Like, Liken, Likeness, Likewise, Look like, Match, Matching, Of little difference, Of no difference, Parallel, Paralleling, Parallel to, Relate to, Relatively, Relative to, Resemblance, Resemble, Resembling, Same as, Similarity, Similarly, Similar to, Synonymous with, The next likeness, Too, To the same extent, Uniform.

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words that CONCEDE

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\"...to accept as true, valid, or accurate...\". Admittedly After all Albeit Although Although this may be true At the same time But even so Certainly Clearly Doubtless Doubtlessly Even so Even though Granted Granted that Naturally Nevertheless No doubt Of course Still Surely Though To accede To accommodate To acknowledge To acknowledge defeat To acquiesce To adjust To admit To admit the truth To agree To capitulate To comply with To compromise To concede To concur To confess To conform To consent To give up To make a concession To reconcile To settle To submit To succumb To surrender To withdraw To yield Unfortunately While it is true Yet

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Adjective

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A word that answers the question what kind (excellent results), how many (Jour laptops), or which one (the latest) data. An adjective may be a single word (a wealthy man), a phrase (a man of great wealth), or a clause (a man who possesses great wealth). An adjective modifies the meaning of a noun (loose cannon) or a pronoun (unlucky me, I was wrong

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Adverb

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A word that answers the question when, where, why, in what manner, or to what extent. An adverb may be a single word (speak clearly), a phrase (speak in a clear voice), or a clause (speak as clearly as you can). An adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (See also Clause, adverbial.) We closed the deal quickly. (Modifies the verb closed.) Caroline seemed genuinely pleased. (Modifies the adjective pleased.) My presentation went surprisingly well. (Modifies the adverb well.)

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Adverbial conjunctive (or connective)

answer

An adverb that connects the main clauses of a compound sentence; for example, however, therefore, nevertheless, hence, moreover, otherwise, consequently. Also referred to as a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression

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Antecedent

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A noun or a noun phrase to which a pronoun refers. She is the person who wrote the letter. (Person is the antecedent of who.) Owning a home has its advantages. (Owning a home is the antecedent of its.)

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Appositive

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A noun or a noun phrase that identifies another noun or pronoun that immediately precedes it. Mr Mancuso, our chief financial officer, would like to meet you. My brother Kyle and his wife Martha are planning to move to Colorado.

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Article

answer

Considered an adjective. The definite article is the; the indefinite articles are a and an.

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Case

answer

The form of a noun or of a pronoun that indicates its relation to other words in the sentence. There are three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective. Nouns have the same form in the nominative and objective cases but a special ending for the possessive.

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Nominative pronouns

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I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who.

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Possessive pronouns

answer

my, mine your, yours his, hers, its our, ours their, theirs whose

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Objective pronouns

answer

me you him, her, it us them whom

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Nominative case

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Used for the subject or the complement of a verb. She publishes a newsletter (Subject] The person who ca led you was / (Complement)

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Possessive case

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Used to show ownership and other relationships. My statistical analysis is in this report The suggestions in the appendix are also mine.

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Objective case

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Used for (1) the object of a verb, (2) the object of a preposition, (3) the subject of an infinitive, (4) the object of an infinitive, and (5) the complement of the infinitive to be. Can you help us this weekend? (Object of the verb help.) Brenda has not written to me. (Object of the preposition to.) I encouraged her to enter the biathlon. (Subject of the infinitive to enter) William promised to call me but he didn't (Object of the infinitive to call.) They believed me to be her. (Complement of the infinitive to be.)

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Clause

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A group of related words containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause (also known as a main clause or principal clause) expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. I will go (independent clause) if I am invited [dependent clause].

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Adjective clause

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A dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun in the main clause. Adjective clauses are joined to the main clause by relative pronouns (which, that, who, whose, whom). Their bill, which includes servicing, seems reasonable. (Modifies bill.)

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Adverbial clause

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A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in its relation to the main clause. Adverbial clauses indicate time, place, manner, cause, purpose, condition, result, reason, or contrast. These orders can be filled as soon as stock is received. (Time.) I was advised to live where the climate is dry. (Place.) She worked as though her life depended on it (Manner.) Please write me at once if you have any suggestions. (Condition.) Because our plant is closed in August, we cannot fill your order now. (Reason.]

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Coordinate clauses

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Clauses of the same rank—independent or dependent. Cart will oversee the day-to-day operations, and Sheila will be responsible for the finances. (Coordinate independent clauses.) When you have read the user's manual and you have mastered all the basic operations, try to deal with these special applications. (Coordinate dependent clauses.)

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Elliptical clause

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A clause from which key words have been omitted. Now, for the next topic. Really? If possible, arrive at one.

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Essential (restrictive) clause

answer

A dependent clause that cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the main (independent) clause. Essential clauses are not set off by commas. The magazine that came yesterday contains an evaluation of new software.

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Nonessential (nonrestrictive) clause

answer

A dependent clause that adds descriptive information but could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main (independent) clause. Such clauses are separated or set off from the main clause by commas. She has had a lot of success with her latest book, which deals with corporate finance. Her latest book, which deals with corporate financial analysis, has sold quite well

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Noun clause

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A dependent clause that functions as a noun in the main clause. Whether the proposal will be accepted remains to be seen. (Noun clause as subject) They thought that the plan was a failure. (Noun clause as object) Then he said, \"Who gave you that information?\" (Noun clause as object)

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Comparison

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The form of an adjective or adverb that indicates degrees in quality, quantity, or manner. The degrees are positive, comparative, and superlative.

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Positive degree of Comparison

answer

The simple form; for example, new, efficient (adjectives); soon, quietly (adverbs).

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Comparative degree of Comparison

answer

Indicates a higher or lower degree of quality or manner than is expressed by the positive degree. The comparative is used when two things are compared and is regularly formed by adding er to the positive degree (newer, sooner). In longer words the comparative is formed by adding more or less to the positive (more efficient, less efficient; more quietly, less quietly.

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Superlative degree of Comparison

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Denotes the highest or lowest degree of quality or manner. The superlative is used when more than two things are compared and is regularly formed by adding est to the positive degree (newest, soonest). In longer words the superlative is formed by adding most or least to the positive (most efficient, least efficient; most quietly, least quietly.

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Complement

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A word or phrase that completes the sense of the verb. It may be an object, a predicate noun, a predicate pronoun, or a predicate adjective. the term complement is used to refer only to a predicate noun, pronoun, or adjective following a linking verb.

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Object

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Follows a transitive verb. (See Verb.) is used to denote the complement of a transitive verb I have already drafted the contract.

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Predicate noun or pronoun

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Follows a Unking verb (such as is, are, was, were, will be, has been, could be). It explains the subject and is identical with it. (Also called & predicate complement, subject complement, and predicate nominative.) Miss Kwong is our new accountant. (Accountant refers to Miss Kwong.) The person responsible for the decision was /. (The pronoun / refers to person.)

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Predicate adjective

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Completes the sense of a linking verb. (Also called ^predicate complement.) These charges are excessive. (The adjective excessive refers to charge

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Compound adjective

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A phrase or clause that qualifies, limits, or restricts the meaning of a word. Also referred to as a compound modifier.

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Conjunction

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A word or phrase that connects words, phrases, or clauses.

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Coordinating conjunction

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Connects words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, and nor.

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Correlative conjunction

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Consists of two elements that are used in pairs; for example, both ... and, not only. . . but (also), either.. . or, neither... nor.

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Subordinating conjunction

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Used to join a dependent clause to a main (independent) clause; for example, when, where, after, before, if.

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Conjunctive adverb

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Adverbial conjunctive

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Connective

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A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses. The chief types of connectives are conjunctions, adverbial conjunctives, prepositions, and relative pronouns.

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Contraction

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A shortened form of a word or phrase in which an apostrophe indicates the omitted letters or words; for example, don't for do not.

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Dangling modifier

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A modifier that is attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word.

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Direct address

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A construction in which a speaker or a writer addresses another person directly; for example, \"What do you think, Sylvia?\"

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Elliptical expressions

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Condensed expressions from which keywords have been omitted; for example, if necessary (for if it is necessary).

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Essential elements

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Words, phrases, or clauses needed to complete the structure or meaning of a sentence. (See also Clause; Phrase)

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Gender

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The characteristic of nouns and pronouns that indicates whether the thing named is masculine (man, boy, he), feminine (woman, girl, she), or neuter (book, concept, it). Nouns that refer to either males or females have common gender (person, child).

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Gerund

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A verb form ending in ing and used as a noun. Selling requires special skills. (Subject] I enjoy selling. (Direct object of enjoy!) She is experienced in selling. (Object of preposition in.)

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Dangling gerund

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A prepositional-gerund phrase that is attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word.

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Imperative

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relating to verbs in the imperative mood

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Indicative

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relating to the mood of verbs that is used simple declarative statements

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Infinitive

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The form of the verb usually introduced by to. An infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (See Phrase. NOUN: To find affordable housing these days is not easy. (Subject.) She is trying to do a hatchet job on my proposal. (Object.} ADJECTIVE: I still have two more contracts to draft (Modifies contracts.) ADVERB: He resigned to take another position. (Modifies resigned.)

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Interjection

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A word that shows emotion; usually without grammatical connection to other parts of a sentence. Wow! What a weekend! Oh, so that's what he meant.

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Modifier

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A word, phrase, or clause that qualifies, limits, or restricts the meaning of a word. (See Adjective; Adverb; Compound adjective; Dangling modifier, Squinting modifier

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Mood (mode)

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The form of the verb that shows the manner of the action. There are three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

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Indicative Mood

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States a fact or asks a question. Our lease has expired. When does our lease expire?

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Imperative Mood

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Expresses a command or makes a request. Call me next week. Please send me your latest catalog.

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Subjunctive Mood

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Used in dependent clauses following main (independent) clauses expressing necessity, demand, or wishing; also used in if, as if, and as though clauses that state conditions which are improbable, doubtful, or contrary to fact. I demand that we be heard. It is imperative that he be notified. We urge that she be elected. If he were appointed, I would quit I wish I were going. If she had known, she would have written.

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Nonessential elements

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Words, phrases, or clauses that are not needed to complete the structure or meaning of a sentence.

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Noun

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The name of a person, place, object, idea, quality, or activity.

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Abstract noun

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The name of a quality or a general idea; for example, courage, freedom

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Collective noun

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A noun that represents a group of persons, animals, or things; for example, audience, company, flock.

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Common noun

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The name of a class of persons, places, or things; for example, child, house.

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Predicate noun

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Follows a linking verb and defines or renames the subject

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Proper noun

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The official name of a particular person, place, or thing; for example, Ellen, San Diego, Wednesday. Proper nouns are capitalized.

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Number

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The characteristic of a noun, pronoun, or verb that indicates whether one person or thing (singular) or more than one (plural) is meant. NOUW: beeper, beepers PRONOUN: she, they VERB: [she] works, (they] work

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Object

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The person or thing that receives the action of a transitive verb. An object may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. (See Case, objective.) I need a new laptop computer. (Word.] She prefers to work with hard copy. (Infinitive phrase.] We did not realize that your deadline was so tight. (Clause.]

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Direct object

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The person or thing that is directly affected by the action of the verb. (The object in each of the three sentences above is a direct object.)

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Indirect object

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The person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb. The indirect object can be made the object of the preposition to or for. Molly gave (to] me a hard time about my sales performance this quarter.

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Ordinal number

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The form of a number that indicates order or succession; for example, first, second, twelfth or 1st, 2d, 12th.

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Parenthetical elements

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Words, phrases, or clauses that are not necessary to complete the structure or the meaning of a sentence. Gina Sala, my wife's older sister, is my accountant.

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Participle

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A word that may stand alone as an adjective or may be combined with helping (auxiliary) verbs to form different tenses. There are three forms: present, past, and perfect.

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Present participle

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Ends in ing; for example, making, advertising

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Past participle

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Regularly ends in ed (as in asked or filed) but may be irregularly formed (as in lost, seen, and written).

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Perfect participle

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Consists of having plus the past participle; for example, having asked, having lost. When a participle functions as an adjective, it modifies a noun or a pronoun. The coming year poses some new challenges. (Modifies year) Having retired last year, I now do volunteer work. (Modifies /.) Because a participle has many of the characteristics of a verb, it may take an object and be modified by an adverb. The participle and its object and modifiers make up a. participial phrase. Seizing the opportunity, Orzo offered to buy the business. [Opportunity is the object of seizing.) Moving aggressively, we can control the market. [Aggressively modifies moving.)

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Dangling participle

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A participial phrase attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word.

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Parts of speech

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The eight classes into which words are grouped according to their uses in a sentence: verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. Time flies like an arrow. On this case, time is a noun, flies is a verb, and like is a preposition.] Fruit flies like a banana. On this case, flies is part of a compound noun, fruit flies; like is a verb.]

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Person

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The characteristic of a word that indicates whether a person is speaking (first person), is spoken to (second person), or is spoken about (third person). Only personal pronouns and verbs change their forms to show person. All nouns are considered third person. Singular Plural FIRST PERSON: / like this book. We like this book. SECOND PERSON: You like this book. You like this book. THIRD PERSON: She likes this book. They like this book.

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Phrase

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A group of two or more words without a subject and a predicate; used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. (See Predicate.)

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Noun phrase

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A phrase that functions as a noun (such as a gerund phrase, an infinitive phrase, or a prepositional phrase). I like running my own business. (Gerund phrase as object] To provide the best possible service is our goal. Onfinitive phrase as subject.] Before 9 a.m. is the best time to call me. (Prepositional phrase as subject.]

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Adjective phrase

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A phrase that functions as an adjective (such as an infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or a prepositional phrase). The time to act is now! Onfinitive phrase indicating what kind of time.)

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Adverbial phrase

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A phrase that functions as an adverb (such as an infinitive phrase or a prepositional phrase). Let's plan to meet after lunch. (Prepositional phrase indicating when to meet.)

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Gerund phrase

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A gerund plus its object and modifiers; used as a noun. Delaying payments to your suppliers will prove costly. (Gerund phrase as subject.)

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Infinitive phrase

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An infinitive plus its object and modifiers; may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive phrase that is attached either to no word in a sentence or to the wrong word is called a dangling infinitive. To get TFs okay on this purchase order took some doing. (As a noun; serves as subject of the verb took.) The decision to close the Morrisville plant was not made easily. (As an adjective; tells what kind of decision.) Janice resigned to open her own business. (As an adverb; tells why Janice resigned.) An infinitive phrase, unlike other phrases, may sometimes have a subject. This subject precedes the infinitive and is in the objective case. I want her to review this draft for accuracy. (Her is the subject of to review.)

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Participial phrase

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A participle and its object and modifiers; used as an adjective. The committee considering your proposal should come to a decision this week. I prefer the cover sample printed in blue and yellow.

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Prepositional phrase

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A preposition and its object and modifiers; may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. From Boston to Tulsa is about 1550 miles. (As a noun; serves as subject of is.) Profits in the automobile industry are up sharply this quarter. [As an adjective; indicates which type of profits.] You handled Dr. Waterman's objections with great skill. (As an adverb; indicates the manner in which the objections were handled.)

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Prepositional-gerund phrase

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A phrase that begins with a preposition and has a gerund as the object. By rechecking these figures before you release them, you deal with any questions raised higher management. (By is the preposition; rechecking, a gerund, is the object of by]

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Essential (restrictive) phrase

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A phrase that limits, defines, or identifies; cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. The study analyzing our competitors' promotion activities will be finished within the next two weeks.

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Nonessential (nonrestrictive) phrase.

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A phrase that can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. The Stanforth-Palmer Company, one of the country's largest financial services organizations, expanding into satellite communications.

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Verb phrase

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The individual words that make up the verb in a sentence. Sometimes a verb phrase includes an adverb. A verb phrase can function only as a verb. You should work together with Nora on the report. (The verb phrase consists of the verb form should work plus the adverb together)

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Predicate

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That part of a sentence which tells what the subject does or what is done to the subject or what state of being the subject is in. (See also Verb.)

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Complete predicate

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Consists of a verb and its complement along with any modifiers. Barbara has handled the job well.

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Simple predicate

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The verb alone, without regard for any complement or modifiers that may accompany it. Barbara has handled the job well.

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Compound predicate

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Two or more predicates joined by conjunctions. Barbara has handled the job well and deserves a good deal of praise.

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Prefix

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A letter, syllable, or word added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning; for example, afloat, reupholster, undernourished.

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Preposition

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A connective (such as from, to, in, on, of, at, by, for, with) that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is in the objective case. Martin's work was reviewed by Hedley and me.

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Punctuation

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Marks used to indicate relationships between words, phrases, and clauses.

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Terminal (end) punctuation

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The period, the question mark, and the exclamation point—the three marks that may indicate the end of a sentence. NOTE: When a sentence breaks off abruptly, a dash may be used to mark the end of the sentence. When a sentence trails off without really ending, ellipsis marks (three spaced periods) are used to mark the end of the sentence.

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Internal punctuation

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Commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, parentheses, quotation marks, apostrophes, ellipsis marks, asterisks, diagonals, and brackets are the most common marks of internal punctuation.

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Question

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an instance of questioning or challenging the accuracy, probity, or propriety of,

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Direct question

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A question in its original form, as spoken or written. He then asked me, \"What is your opinion?\"

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Indirect question

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A restatement of a question without the use of the exact words of the speaker. He then asked me what my opinion was.

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Independent question

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A question that represents a complete sentence but is incorporated in a larger sentence. The main question is, Who will translate this idea into a clear plan of action?

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Quotation

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a short note recognizing a source of information or of a quoted passage

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Direct quotation

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A quotation of words exactly as spoken or written. I myself heard Ed say, \"I will arrive in Santa Fe on Tuesday.\"

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Indirect quotation

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A restatement of a quotation without the use of the exact words of the speaker. I myself heard Ed say that he would arrive in Santa Fe on Tuesday.

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Sentence

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A group of words representing a complete thought and containing a subject and a predicate (a verb along with any complements and modifiers).

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Simple sentence

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A sentence consisting of one independent clause. I have no recollection of the meeting.

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Compound sentence

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A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses. Our Boston office will be closed, and our Dallas office will be relocated.

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Complex sentence

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A sentence consisting of one independent clause (also called the main clause) and one or more dependent clauses. We will make an exception to the policy if circumstances warrant.

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Compound-complex sentence

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A sentence consisting of two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. I tried to handle the monthly report alone, but when I began to analyze the data, I realized that I needed your help.

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Elliptical sentence

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A word or phrase treated as a complete sentence, even though the subject and verb are understood but not expressed. Enough on that subject. Why not?

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Declarative sentence

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A sentence that makes a statement. Our company is continually testing cutting-edge technologies.

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Interrogative sentence

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A sentence that asks a question. When will the conference begin?

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Exclamatory sentence

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A sentence that expresses strong feeling. Don't even think of smoking here!

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Imperative sentence

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A sentence that expresses a command or a request. (The subject you is understood if it is not expressed.) Send a check at once. Please let us hear from you.

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Sentence fragment

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A phrase or clause that is incorrectly treated as a sentence.

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Squinting modifier

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A modifier placed in such a way that it can be interpreted as modifying either what precedes or what follows.

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Statement

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A sentence that asserts a fact.

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Subject

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A word, phrase, or clause that names the person, place, or thing about which something is said. (See Case, nominative.) The law firm with the best reputation in town is Barringer and Doyle. Whoever applies for the job from within the department will get special consideration.

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Compound subject

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Two or more subjects joined by a conjunction. My wife and my three sons are off on a white-water rafting trip.

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Suffix

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A letter, syllable, or word added to the end of a word to modify its meaning; for example, trendy friendly, countless, receivership, lonesome.

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Superlative degree

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See Comparison, superlative.

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Syllable

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One or more letters that represent one sound.

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There are six progressive tenses, corresponding to each of the primary and perfect tenses:

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PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: they are thinking PAST PROGRESSIVE: they were thinking FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: they will be thinking PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: they have been thinking PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: they had been thinking FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: they will have been thinking

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PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:

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they are thinking

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PAST PROGRESSIVE:

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they were thinking

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FUTURE PROGRESSIVE:

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they will be thinking

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PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:

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they have been thinking

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PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:

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they had been thinking

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FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:

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they will have been thinking

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There are two emphatic tenses:

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PRESENT EMPHATIC: they do think PAST EMPHATIC: they did think

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PRESENT EMPHATIC:

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they do think

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PAST EMPHATIC:

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they did think

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Transitional expressions

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Expressions that link independent clauses or sentences; for example, as a result, therefore, on the other hand, nevertheless.

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Verb

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A word or phrase used to express action or state of being. Enniston has boosted its sales goals for the year. (Action.] My son-in-law was originally a lawyer, but he has now become a computer-game designer. (State of being.)

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Helping (auxiliary) verb

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A verb that helps in the formation of another verb. The chief helping verbs are be, can, could, do, have, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would.

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Transitive verb

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A verb that requires an object to complete its meaning. Fusilli has rejected all offers to purchase his business.

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Intransitive verb

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A verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning. As market growth occurs and customer interest builds, our sales expectations are rising and top management's excitement has increased.

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Linking verb

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A verb that connects a subject with a predicate adjective, noun, or pronoun. The various forms of to be are the most commonly used linking verbs. Become, look, seem, appear, and grow are also used as linking verbs. Laura seemed willing to compromise, but Frank became obstinate in his demands. Was he afraid that any concession might make him appear a fool?

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Principal parts of verbs

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Principal parts

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Verbal

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A word that is derived from a verb but functions in some other way. (See Gerund; Infinitive; Participle.)

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Voice

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The property of a verb that indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

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Active voice

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A verb is in the active voice when its subject is the doer of the act. About a dozen people reviewed the report in draft form

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Passive voice

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A verb is in the passive voice when its subject is acted upon. The report was reviewed in draft form by about a dozen people.

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A-an

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In choosing a or an, consider the sound (not the spelling) of the word that follows. Use the article a before all consonant sounds, including sounded h (as in hat), long u (as in use), and o wi th the sound of w (as in one).

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Opposition / Limitation / Contradiction

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Transition phrases like but, rather and or, express that there is evidence to the contrary or point out alternatives, and thus introduce a change the line of reasoning (contrast). although this may be true, in contrast, different from, of course ..., but, on the other hand, on the contrary, at the same time, in spite of, even so / though, be that as it may, then again, above all, in reality, after all, but, (and) still, unlike, or, (and) yet, while, albeit, besides, although, instead, whereas, despite, conversely, otherwise, however, rather, nevertheless, regardless, notwithstanding,

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Cause / Condition / Purpose

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These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions. in the event that, granted (that), as / so long as, on (the) condition (that), for the purpose of, with this intention, with this in mind, in the hope that, to the end that, for fear that, in order to, seeing / being that, in view of, If, ... then, unless, when, whenever, since, while, because of, as, since, while, lest, in case, provided that, given that, only / even if, so that, so as to, owing to, inasmuch as, due to,

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Examples / Support / Emphasis

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These transitional devices (like especially) are used to introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader. in other words to put it differently for one thing as an illustration in this case for this reason to put it another way that is to say with attention to by all means important to realize another key point first thing to remember most compelling evidence must be remembered point often overlooked to point out on the positive / negative side with this in mind notably including like to be sure namely chiefly truly indeed certainly surely markedly especially specifically expressively surprisingly frequently significantly in fact in general in particular in detail for example for instance to demonstrate to emphasize to repeat to clarify to explain to enumerate such as

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Effect / Consequence / Result

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Some of these transition words (thus, then, accordingly, consequently, therefore, henceforth) are time words that are used to show that after a particular time there was a consequence or an effect. Note that for and because are placed before the cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the consequences or effects.as a result under those circumstances in that case for this reason for thus because the then hence consequently therefore thereupon forthwith accordingly henceforth

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Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

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These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and/orrestate ideas, or a indicate a final general statement. Also some words (like therefore) from the Effect / Consequence category can be used to summarize. as can be seen generally speaking in the final analysis all things considered as shown above in the long run given these points as has been noted in a word for the most part after all in fact in summary in conclusion in short in brief in essence to summarize on balance altogether overall ordinarily usually by and large to sum up on the whole in any event in either case all in all

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Time / Chronology / Sequence

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These transitional words (like finally) have the function of limiting, restricting, and defining time. They can be used either alone or as part of adverbial expressions. at the present time from time to time sooner or later at the same time up to the present time to begin with in due time until now as soon as in the meantime in a moment without delay in the first place all of a sudden at this instant immediately quickly finally after later last until since then before hence since when once about next now formerly suddenly shortly henceforth whenever eventually meanwhile further during first, second in time prior to forthwith straightaway instantly presently occasionally Many transition words in the time category (consequently; first, second, third; further; hence; henceforth; since; then, when; and whenever) have other uses. Except for the numbers (first, second, third) and further they add a meaning of time in expressing conditions, qualifications, or reasons. The numbers are also used to add information or list examples. Further is also used to indicate added space as well as added time.

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Space / Location / Place

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These transition words are often used as part of adverbial expressions and have the function to restrict, limit or qualify space. Quite a few of these are also found in the Time category and can be used to describe spatial order or spatial reference. in the middle to the left/right in front of on this side in the distance here and there in the foreground in the background in the center of adjacent to opposite to here there next where from over near above below down up under further beyond nearby wherever around between before alongside amid among beneath beside behind across

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coordinating conjunctions

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All english transition words and phrases (sometimes also called 'conjunctive adverbs') do the same work as

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Conjunctions

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Words that connect or link two parts of a sentence are called conjunctions (see \"to conjoin\"). The most common ones are 'and', 'or' and 'but'. There are three basic types of conjunctions: 1. coordinating conjunctions used to connect two independent clauses, 2. subordinating conjunctions used to establish the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence, and 3. correlative conjunctions, joining various sentence elements which are grammatically equal.

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Coordinating Conjunctions

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usually comes in the middle of a sentence, and a comma is used before the it (unless both clauses are very short). They join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.

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And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet

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are the seven coordinating conjunctions. To remember them, the acronym FANBOYS can be used.

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Subordinating Conjunctions

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also called subordinators, are conjunctions that introduce a dependent clause. These adverbs that act like conjunctions are placed at the front of the clause - and a comma is needed at the end of the adverbial phrase when it precedes the main clause. Examples: If the only tool you have is a hammer, you tend to see every problem as a nail. [Abraham Maslow] Some people make headlines while others make history. [Philip Elmer-DeWitt]

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Subordinating Conjunctions

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after although as as if as long as because before how (only) if in case that in order that provided that now that once rather than since so that than that though till unless until what when where whereas whether which while who whom whose why

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Correlative Conjunctions

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Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs - and are used to link equivalent (similar) sentence elements. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural. as . . . as, just as . . . so, both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also, not . . . but, whether . . . or,

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A verb or compound verb

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asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being.

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verbs

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are the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.

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The Parts of the Sentence

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are a set of terms for describing how people construct sentences from smaller pieces. There is not a direct correspondence between the parts of the sentence and the parts of speech -- the subject of a sentence, for example, could be a noun, a pronoun, or even an entire phrase or clause.

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To determine the subject of a sentence

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first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing \"who?\" or \"what?\" before it -- the answer is the subject.

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adjectives.

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are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are

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adjectives

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nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category.

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...

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The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable

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as

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construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality: He is as foolish as he is large. She is as bright as her mother.

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fewer

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when we're talking about countable things, we use the word

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less

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when we're talking about measurable quantities that we cannot count, we use the word

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less

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definitely use___ when referring to statistical or numerical expressions:

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Determiners

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articles and other limiters. See Determiners a

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Observation

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postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting)

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Size and Shape

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adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)

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Age

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adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)

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Color

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adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)

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Origin

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denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian)

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Material

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denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)

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Qualifier

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final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)

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author's purpose

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the reason the author wrote the story

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character

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the person or animal around which the action in a story occurs

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climax

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the high point or turning point in a story

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conclusion

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a decision reached based on information presented in a selection

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conflict

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the problem or complications in a story

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dialogue

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the written conversation between two or more characters

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entertain

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to use writing to amuse a reader or keep the reader interested

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express

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to use writing to state an author's ideas or feelings

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fact

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a statement that is true or can be proven

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first-person point of view

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a point of view that includes the author, uses the word \"I\"

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flashback

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when the author remember or recalls something, returning to an earlier time in a story

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foreshadowing

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a prediction about what will happen later, a suggestion in a story of what is to come later by giving hints and clues

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infer

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to try and understand and interpret the author's message

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inform

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to use writing to provide factual information about a topic

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main idea

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a figurative comparison that does not use \"like\" or \"as\"

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main idea

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the most important or main part of a story or passage

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mood

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how the writing makes ME the reader feel (happy, sad, upset)

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opinion

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a statement that requires a value judgement; it is what someone thinks or believes

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persuade

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to use writing to convince a reader to accept an author's viewpoint or perspective

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plot

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the action or events in a story

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point of view

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the perspective from which the author writes the story

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resolution

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the part of the story where the problem is solved

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sequence

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the order in which the events in a selection occur

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setting

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the time and place in which the action of a story occurs

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simile

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a figurative comparison that uses \"like\" or \"as\"

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style

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how the author writes rather than what the writer writes

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summarize

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a shortened form of the story and main idea

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supporting details

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ideas that support, or back up, the main idea of a selection

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symbolism

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something that represents something else- an object representing an idea

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theme

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the moral of the story. a statement about how life is

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third person

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a point of view that does not include the author, does not use the word \"I\"

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tone

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the way the author feels or the author's attitude toward the subject

Grammar & Composition

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