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Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Cognitive Learning Theory Observational Learning Theory

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The Four Major Theories of Learning

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a. A relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experiences b. The process that produces a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge or attitude or capability due to experience

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What is learning?

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Russian physiologist who was studying the digestive system of dogs when he accidentally discovered classical conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov

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Learning process in which two stimuli become associated with each other; when an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to illicit an involuntary response

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Classical Conditioning

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the thing or action that acts as a trigger

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Stimulus

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the reaction to the stimulus

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Response

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learned response

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Conditioned

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triggers without any learning needed

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Unconditioned

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Doesn't cause a response

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Neutral

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A stimulus that doesn't cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response

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NS

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A stimulus that automatically triggers an involuntary response without any learning needed

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US or UCS

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A reflexive, involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus

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UR

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A previously neutral stimulus that an organism learns to associate with an uncoordinated stimulus

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CS

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A learned response to a conditioned stimulus

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CR

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The neutral stimulus is no longer neutral. It causes a reaction all by itself

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How do you know if learning has taken place? (Classical conditioning)

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The NS/CS must come before the UCS The NS/ CS and UCS must comes very close together in time The NS must be paired with the UCS several times, often many times, before conditioning can take place The CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other competing stimuli

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Principles of Classical Conditioning

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Founded new school called behaviorism

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John B. Watson

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Took Pavlov's findings and applied them to humans, especially focusing on emotions

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John B. Watson

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Stated he could train every child to like or dislike anything of his choosing

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John B. Watson

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Introduced the conditioned emotional response

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John B. Watson

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An emotional reaction acquired via classical conditioning; process by which an emotional reaction becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus

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Conditioned Emotional Response

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The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response

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Stimulus generalization

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When the CS is presented without the US, the CS goes away

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Extinction

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After extinction (maybe once or twice), the CS and US occur again, fear comes back

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Spontaneous recovery

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Seeing a traumatic fear enough in someone else to elicit the same fear response

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Vicarious Conditioning

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Going through a traumatic event that causes memory recall when the neutral stimulus is seen Only takes pairing of stimulus once

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Conditioned Taste Aversion

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a stimulus that causes the behavior to increase or continue

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Reinforcement

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A stimulus that causes the behavior to decrease

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Punishment

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Behavior continues because a pleasant stimulus is given after doing a behavior (Exercise -> feel strong)

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Positive Reinforcement

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Behavior continues in order to avoid an unpleasant stimulus that would come (take meds -> avoid pain)

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Negative Reinforcement

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Behavior decreases because an undesirable stimulus is applied after doing behavior (cat scratches -> water sprayed)

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Type 1 Punishment

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Behavior decreases because a pleasant stimulus is removed after doing behavior (girl throwing trash -> electronics taken away)

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Type 2 Punishment

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Select target behavior Choose a reinforcer Reward each smaller behavior as it leads to the target behavior

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Shaping

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Refers to how often/when the reinforcement is given and is important for shaping behavior

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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Every correct response gets a reward Great for learning new behaviors quickly

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Continuous reinforcement

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Every 30 seconds of the correct behavior performance

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Fixed Interval

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Every fifth time the correct behavior is performed Ex: paychecks, studying for a test, punch cards for future discounts

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Fixed Ratio

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Time passed before the reinforcer given varies

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Variable interval

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Number of correct responses before given reinforcer varies Ex: pop quizzes, slot machines Result in the most number of desirable behavior responses

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Variable ratio

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Severe punishment may cause avoidance of punisher instead of the behavior being punished

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Problems with Punishment

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Severe punishment may encourage lying to avoid punishment

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Problems with Punishment

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Severe punishment creates fear and anxiety

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Problems with Punishment

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Certain punishments may increase aggression

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Problems with Punishmet

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A type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others

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Observational Learning

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Performed by Albert Bandura

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The Bobo Doll Experiment

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Control group: children put in a room with toys and adults. Children played with toys. Adults left. Children continued to play with the toys as they had before

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The Bobo Doll Experiment

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Experimental Group: children put in a room with toys and adults. One adult beat up the doll. Adults left and children beat up the doll in the exact same way as the adult when they thought they were no longer being observed

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The Bobo Doll Experiment

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Behaviors never previously performed can be repeated by learning by observation

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The Bobo Doll Experiment Results

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Viewing aggression didn't "get it out of their system", it made them more aggressive

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The Bobo Doll Experiment Results

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Those children were more likely to pick up a toy gun and use it (go over to the doll and pretend to shoot it even though the adult hadn't done it)

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The Bobo Doll Experiment Results

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Two groups of kids, combined observational learning with operant conditioning. The adult either got reward or punished for their violent behavior

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Second Bandura Experiment

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Those who watched the adult get reinforced were more likely to be violent with the Bobo Doll than those in the other group

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Second Bandura Experiment

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Four Elements of observational learning

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Attention, memory, imitation, motivation

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Emotional responses or physical exercise can boost this

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Memory

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An active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and retrieves the information from storage

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Memory

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Three processes of memory

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Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

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Suggests that memory operates in a series of stages The model suggests that theses stages (sensory memory, short term memory, & long-term memory) represent a flow of information

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Information-processing model

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Meaning makes efficient memories (remember the bloody teeth)

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Levels of processing model

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All of this (the other models) takes place at the same time

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Parallel Distributed processing model

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Three memory systems

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Sensory Memory, short term memory, and long term memory

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Information enters nervous system through sensory organs, neurons

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Sensory memory's function

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Visual impressions that are photograph-like in their accuracy but dissolve in less than a second; a form of sensory memory

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Iconic Memory

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Exact copies of the sounds we hear; a form of sensory memory

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Echoic Memory

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What is the process that moves information from just entering our senses, and staying briefly, to actually being in our awareness and then moving to our short-term memory?

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Selective attention

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Is all information passed on to be analyzed for meaning in the short-term memory

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No

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Information is held for brief periods while being used Also known as working memory

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Short-term memory's function

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What is short-term memory useful for?

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Keeping track of things momentarily

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What is short-term memory's capacity?

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7 items, + or - items (5-9)

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What is short-term memory's duration?

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about 12-30 seconds without rehearsal

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Bits of information are combined into meaningful units

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Chunking

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Saying information to be remembered over and over in one's head to keep it in memory-typically short-term memories are encoded in auditory form

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Maintenance Rehearsal

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Short-term memory can be lost due to:

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Failure to rehearse, decay, interference (by similar information and interruption), and displacement (new information pushes out older information)

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information is placed to be kept more or less permanently

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Long-term memory's function

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Seems to be unlimited

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Long-term memory's capacity

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Memories stored away for a long time may still be there even if we are not always able to retrieve them

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Long-term memory's duration

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What can trigger retrieval?

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Images, sounds, smells, tastes involved in events that may have some meaning attached to them, which give them enough importance to be stored long term

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Meaningful information is deeply processed

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Levels-of-processing model (long-term memory)

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How does your text say we can deeply process (deeply encode) or make meaning out of information so that it will stay in long-term memory?

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Elaborative rehearsal

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Transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

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Elaborative rehearsal

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Memory with conscious recall

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Explicit Memory (Declarative)

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Events you have experience Ex: my daughter had a ballerina party for her fourth birthday

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Episodic Memory

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General knowledge, facts Ex: Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president

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Semantic Memory

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Memory without conscious recall

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Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative)

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Motor skills, actions

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Procedural Memory

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any stimulus that helps us to remember

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Retrieval Cue

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Memories are more easily recalled when the context and cue at the time of encoding are similar to those at the time of retrieval

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Encoding specificity

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When we are in a certain physiological or psychological state, we will better remember information from where we were in a similar state

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State-dependent learning

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Ex: fill in the blanks on an application OR a test with fill-in-the-blanks and essays to write

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Recall

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Ex: A word-search puzzle OR a test with multiple choice response

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Recognition

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What is remembered more accurately

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Serial Position Effect

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Information at the beginning of a body of information

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Primary Effect

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Information at the end of a body of information

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Recency Effect

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Having the knowledge of something but unable to pull it out of storage

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Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

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You know one girl and just saw another girl that you think is the first girl Possible explanation for de ja vu

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False positive

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Certain kinds of information enters LTM with no effortful control Ex: Passage of time, knowledge of physical space, frequency of events

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Automatic Encoding

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Automatic encoding due to strong emotional associations with unexpected even Ex: world news, personal events, 9/11

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Flashbulb Memories

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Information is not processed into memory

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Encoding Failure

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Memory trace is not used over time

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Decay

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Older information prevents or interferes with retrieval of new information Old getting in the way of the new Ex: problem driving in England after learning in the U.S.

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Proactive Interference

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Newer information prevents or interferes with retrieval of older information Ex: Problem programming theold DVR after having the new one for a year

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Retroactive Interference

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Problems in functioning of memory areas of the brain resulting from:

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Concussions, brain injuries, alcoholism, disorders of the aging brain

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Loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories (senile dementia). Usually does not necessarily affect procedural LTM

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Anterograde Amnesia

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The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3 Likely due to the implicit nature of infant memory (not our conscious awareness, less verbal until after age 2)

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Infantile Amnesia

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The primary motor difficulty is anterograde amnesia, although retrograde amnesia can occur as the disease progresses

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Alzheimer's disease

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There are various drugs in use or in development for use in slowing or stopping the progression of the disease

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Alzheimer's disease

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Brain forms beta-amyloid protein deposits (plaques) Strands of proteins become twisted (tangled) Possible problem with a NT in the hippocampus (involved in the formation of memories) Possible genetic link, but in less than 5% of cases

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Causes of Alzheimer's disease

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Exercising brain (word puzzles, ect) Maintaining healthy cardiovascular system

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Prevention of Alzheimer's and other kinds of dementia

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Stay heart healthy Get plenty of sleep Eat nutritious food Get regular physical exercise Reduce stress

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Five Strategies for protecting memory

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