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heredity

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the transmission of traits from one generation to the next

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cross fertilization

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fertilization of one plant by pollen from a different plant

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true breeding

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term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate

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hybrids

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the offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

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P generation

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parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross

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F1 generation

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the offspring of the P generation

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F2 generation

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the offspring of the F1 generation

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monohybrid cross

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cross of individuals and contrasting only one trait

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character

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A heritable feature

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trait

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the variants of the phenotype of a character

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alleles

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the genotype of a character

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homozygous

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an allele that was the same in both parents when passed onto the offspring

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heterozygous

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an allele that was different the parents when passed onto the offspring

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law of segregation

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states that the alleles for a trait separate in gametes

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dihybrid cross

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a mating of parental varieties differing in two characters

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law of independent assortment

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the law that states that genes separate independently of one another in meiosis thus one of them is going to be the gene that is passed on to the offspring

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testcross

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an individual of unknown genotype is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual

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rule of multiplication

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used to determine chance that two or more independent events will occur together in some specific combination

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rule of addition

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the probability that an event can occur in two or more alternative ways is the sum of the separate probabilities of the different ways

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wild type traits

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traits most commonly found in nature regardless of whether they are dominant or recessive

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pedigree

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a diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family

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albinism (recessive)

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lack of pigment in skin, hair, and eyes

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cystic fibrosis (recessive)

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excess mucus in the lungs, digestive tract and liver

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Galactosemia (recessive)

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body is unable to metabolize galactose and accumulates in tissue causing mental retardation

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phenylketonuria (recessive)

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body cannot breakdown phenylalanine and accumulates in blood causing lack of pigment and mental retardation

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sickle cell disease (recessive)

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red blood cells form a sickle shape and not able to carry enough oxygen to the tissues

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tay sachs disease (recessive)

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body is unable to breakdown certain lipids in the brain causing death in early childhood

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achondroplasia (dominant)

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a type of dwarfism in which the head and torso develop normally but the arms and legs are shortened

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alzheimer's disease (dominant)

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mental deterioration of the brain; only a rare form of alzheimer's is inherited

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huntington's disease (dominant)

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genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells

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hypercholesterolemia (dominant)

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the presence of an abnormal amount of cholesterol in the cells and plasma of the blood

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chorionic villus sampling

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a prenatal test to detect birth defects at an early stage of pregnancy

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complete dominance

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a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another

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incomplete dominance

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when at least one of the possible phenotypes is recessive

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codominant

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A heterozygote in which both alleles are fully expressed and mixed

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pleiotropy

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A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype

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polygenic inheritance

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process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait

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chromosome theory of inheritance

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generalization that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization accounts for inheritance patterns

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linked genes

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Genes that are located on the same chromosome

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recombination frequency

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the percentage of recombinant offspring among the total

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linkage map

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a genetic map based on recombination frequencies

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hemophilia (recessive)

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sex-linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more proteins required for blood clotting

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red green colorblindness (recessive)

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when a person is not able to distinguish red from green and vice versa

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Duchenne muscular dystrophy (recessive)

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progressive weakening of ability to move and a loss of muscle tissue

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monomer

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A molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules

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polymer

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a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks

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nucleotides

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each individual building block of DNA

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polynucleotides

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chains of nucleotides

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semiconservative model

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Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand

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origins of replication

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specific sequence of nucleotides where the protein that unzips the DNA attaches to

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DNA polymerase

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enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides that produces the new DNA strand

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DNA ligase

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links the okazaki fragments together

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codons

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three-nucleotide sequence of mRNA that codes for a single amino acid

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genetic code

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the set of rules that relate codons in RNA to amino acids in proteins

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terminator

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a codon that signals for the end of the translation of that gene

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mRNA

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RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome

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tRNA

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RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome

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anticodon

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group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon

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ribosomes

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site of protein synthesis

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rRNA

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type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome

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start codon

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specific codon in which the tRNA binds to in order to start the translation process

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P site

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holds the growing polypeptide

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A site

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holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain of the growing polypeptide

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nucleotide substitution

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a mutation when one of the nucleotides is replaced by a different nucleotide but still resulting in the same number of nucleotides in the strand

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nucleotide deletion

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a mutation when one of the nucleotides is deleted thus making it one less nucleotide in the strand

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nucleotide insertion

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a mutation when a nucleotide is inserted into the nucleotide sequence thus resulting in one more nucleotide in the strand

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silent mutation

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when a nucleotide substitution occurs but it has no effect because the new order still calls for the same amino acid (GAA--->GAG both call for the same amino acid)

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missense mutation

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when a nucleotide substitution occurs and it does have an effect on the production of the amino acid (GAA---->GAC call for different amino acids)

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nonsense mutation

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when a nucleotide substitution turns a normal codon into a stop codon so the amino acid will not function properly

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reading frame

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the way a cell's mRNA translating machinery groups the mRNA nucleotides into codons

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mutagenesis

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an event that randomly creates a mutation

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mutagens

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A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

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capsid

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the outer covering of protein surrounding the nucleic acid of a virus

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lytic cycle

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cycle of viral infection that results in replication of virus and cell destruction

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lysogenic cycle

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A phage replication cycle in which the viral DNA embeds with the host DNA and lets the host cell divide and replicate the viral DNA as the cell divides to make new cell resulting in multiple cells carrying the viral DNA and eventually ending up in the lytic cycle

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prophage

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viral DNA that is embedded in the host cell's DNA

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emerging viruses

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viruses that appear abruptly or are new to medical science

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viroids

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single stranded RNA molecules that have no surrounding capsids and only infect plants

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prions

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infectious particle that are similar to viroids but are made up of only proteins and have no RNA or DNA

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transformation

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when a cell uptakes foreign DNA from the surrounding environment

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transduction

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the transfer of bacterial by a phage

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phage

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a virus that is parasitic in bacteria (same as bacteriophage)

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conjugation

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when bacterium form a physical union with one another to exchange DNA

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plasmids

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in bacteria, small circular DNA molecules that are separate from the bacterial chromosome

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R plasmids

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a bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics

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plasmodesmata

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how plant viruses pass from cell to cell

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glycoprotein spikes

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used by mumps virus or HIV to attach to host receptors

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west nile virus

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emerging virus spread by mosquitoes

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molecular biology

answer

the study of heredity at the molecular level

general biology-genetics – Flashcards

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