question

State of agriculture in 1700

answer

-Standard of living for peasants and artisans was about the same as in the Middle Ages -80% of Western Europeans were farmers; higher percentage in Eastern Europe Low agricultural output --midieval open field system --people were malnourished and susceptible to illness -science was a branch of theology--no application to agriculture --failed harvests occurred once or twice a decade resulting in famines

question

Open field system

answer

- Common lands were open and strips of land for agriculture were not divided by fences or hedges. - Open fields were farmed as a community. - Exhaustion of soil was a common problem -1/3 to ½ of lands lay fallow on any given year for the soil to recover - Villages maintained open meadows for hay and natural pasture - Peasants were often taxed heavily -Peasants in eastern Europe were far worse off

question

18th century: England, Netherlands and France became

answer

leaders for increased agriculture, industry and trade resulting in population growth

question

Features of the Agricultural Revolution

answer

-Increased food production:increased crop and animal yields fed more people. -New methods of cultivation: crops were now grown on reclaimed wastelands and uncultivated common lands -Selective breeding of livestock: led to better cultivation due to healthier animals

question

Science and technology were applied to

answer

agriculture

question

low countries led the way to applying science and technology to agriculture

answer

-Population growth meant increased production was necessary -By mid-17th century, the Dutch enclosed fields, rotated crops, heavily fertilized, and planted wide varieties of crops -- A free and capitalistic society provided incentives

question

drainage

answer

-- Much of Holland had been marshlands or under sea waters -- Dutch became world leaders in reclaiming wetlands through drainage -- Cornelius Vermuyden: most famous of Dutch engineers in drainage -- Drainage later used extensively in southern England

question

Crop rotation pioneered by

answer

Viscount Charles Townshend

question

crop rotation

answer

-Applied Dutch techniques of crop rotation using nitrogen-rich crops: turnips, peas, beans, clover, potatoes -Drained much land in England Enriched soil and provided food for livestock -Manure was used for fertilizer -Increased food for livestock meant mass slaughter of animals was no longer needed before winter -By 1740, new agricultural techniques had become popular among much of the English aristocracy

question

Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

answer

Good example of how the empiricism of the scientific revolution was applied to agriculture--creator of the seed drill

question

seed drill (1701)

answer

-allowed for sowing of crops in a straight row rather than scattering it by hand -Used horses for plowing rather than slower oxen

question

Robert Bakewell (1725-1795) pioneered selective breeding of livestock

answer

-Larger and healthier animals resulted -More meat, wool, milk, leather, soap and candle tallow -More manure available for fertilizer

question

New foods

answer

-New foods from the New World became increasingly available in the 17th and 18th century -Potatoes and corn became staple crops: highly nutritious and easy to grow

question

Enclosure movement in England

answer

-First enclosure began in 16th century --Landowners sought to increase profits from wool production by enclosing fields for raising sheep --Differed from 18th century enclosures that were geared towards agriculture -Intensified in the 18th century --End to the open-field system ---Landowners consolidated their scattered holdings into compact fields that were fenced ---Common pasture lands were also enclosed --Resulted in the commercialization of agriculture ---Increase in number of large and medium-sized farms ---Large landowners prospered and invested in technology (machinery, breeding, cultivation methods ---Parliament passed over 300 enclosure acts in the late-18th and early-19th centuries that benefited large landowners ---1815, Corn Laws passed to benefit landowners -----Tariffs on imported food to keep prices to favour producers in England

question

Enclosure's impact on the peasantry

answer

-Many were forced off lands that had once been common -Many moved to towns or cities looking for work --Many found work in factories or joined workhouses (poorhouses) -Many became impoverished farm laborers on large farms -Some were freed up to pursue other economic opportunities, such as the cottage industry -Women had no way to raise animals on common lands for extra money

question

Enclosure Impact on women

answer

-Women before Enclosure had been an indispensable part of a household's economic survival -Enclosure forced women (and men) off the land -After enclosure opportunities were much more limited -Daughters were pushed out of the household sooner. -Young women increasingly went to towns or cities for work in domestic industries or prostitution. -Some families managed to survive in the countryside by supplementing their income via the cottage industry (mostly for spinning and weaving). ---Women played an important role spinning and weaving

question

A strict hierarchical society emerged

answer

-A few large landowners (gentry) dominated the economy and politics -A few strong, prosperous tenant farmers rented land. -Some small, independent peasant farmers owned land. -A large mass of landless peasants worked as wage workers on farms or as cottagers. -Struggles between landlords and peasants occurred --Game laws were passed on behalf of landowners whereby any animals on owners' vast lands could not be hunted for food --Peasants who were without food would risk severe punishment if they were caught hunting for food on an owner's land -Historical debate over the enclosure movement --Traditional view ---Enclosures pushed thousands of peasants out the countryside or resulted in abject poverty for those who remained. ---Theory put forth by the socialist Karl Marx in the 19th century resent research ---Negative effects exaggerated Many remained as prosperous tenant farmers, small landowners or wage earners. ---As much as 50% percent of England's farmland was already enclosed by 1750. 1700: ratio of two landless laborers for every self-sufficient farmer; ratio not significantly larger by 1750 ---Mutual agreements occurred

question

Enclosure did not spread to western Europe

answer

-France did not have national enclosure policy and local peasants resisted it after 1760 -Eastern Europe did not see fundamental agricultural changes until the 19th century

question

Impact of the Agricultural Revolution

answer

-Population explosion in the 18th century -Enclosure fundamentally altered rural society --Common lands enclosed --Widespread migration to towns and cities --Women adversely affected -Cottage industry emerged -Lower food prices = more money for consumer goods

question

Limits on population growth prior to 1700

answer

Famine, disease, warfare

question

Causes for growth after 1700

answer

-Agricultural Revolution -New crops: potatoes and corn -Improved transportation -Better diets led to stronger immune systems -Plague disappeared after 1720 -Improved sanitation -18th century wars were less destructive - Medical advances NOT a cause -Population growth reached a plateau between 1650 and 1750 but took off after 1750 -Between 1700 and 1800, European pop. increased from 120 million to about 190 million

question

cottage industry(putting out system) became a major part of Europe's growing economy

answer

-Rural population was eager to supplement its income -Merchant-capitalists in cities were eager to draw on cheap labor in the countryside -Thus early industrialism was "put out" into the countryside -Manufacturing with hand tools in peasant cottages came to challenge urban craft industry

question

Cottage Industry

answer

-Merchant-capitalists provided raw materials to rural families who produced products or semi-finished products and sent them back to the merchant for payment. -Merchants sold the products for profit. -Wool cloth was most important.

question

The Cottage Industry was essentially a family enterprise

answer

-Work of 4 or 5 spinners needed to keep one weaver steadily employed -Husband and wife constantly tried to find more thread and spinners -- "Spinsters" -Sometimes families subcontracted work to others

question

Problems with the Cottage Industry

answer

-Constant disputes between cottagers and merchants over weights of materials and quality of cloth -Rural labor was unorganized and usually difficult for merchants to control -Merchant desire for more efficient production led to the rise of factories and the industrial revolution

question

Results of cottage industry

answer

-Thousands of poor rural families were able to supplement their incomes. -Unregulated production in the countryside resulted in experimentation and diversification of goods. -- Textiles, knives, forks, housewares, buttons, gloves, clocks, and musical instruments

question

Cottage industry flourished first in England

answer

-Spinning and weaving of wool cloth was most important -In 1500, ½ of England's textiles were produced in the countryside -By 1700, the percentage was higher -"Putting out" system later spread to Continental countries (e.g. France and Germany)

question

Proto-industrial technology

answer

-1733, John Kay: flying shuttle enabled a weaver to throw the shuttle back and forth on a loom with one hand -1764, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny which mechanized the spinning wheel so that eight spools of thread could be spun simultaneously

question

Spain and Portugal_________ their empires

answer

revitalized

question

Britain, France, and Netherlands benefited the (least/most)

answer

most

question

Britain had by far the _______ emigration to the New World.

answer

largest

question

Characteristics of mercantilism

answer

-Main goal: economic self-sufficient -A country or empire sought to create a favorable balance of trade by exporting more than it imported --tariffs were placed on imports

question

Bullionism

answer

countries sought to build up large reserves of gold and silver and prevent the export of these precious metals

question

Colonies were acquired to provide ___ ________ for the mother country

answer

raw materials

question

States granted __________ to large companies (e.g. British East India Co., Dutch East India Co.)

answer

monopolies

question

States encouraged development of ________ __________ so that a country would not have to buy a finished product from a rival country

answer

domestic industries

question

Great Britain

answer

-Became the world's leading maritime power in the 18th century --The Bank of England (1694) provided capital for economic development --The Act of Union (1707) unified England and Scotland; the Scots sought the benefits of trade within the English empire -British mercantilism differed from France in that gov't economic regulations often served the private interest of individuals and public needs of the state --In contrast, authoritarian states like France sought an economic system that primarily benefited the state ---For example, the intendant system was extended throughout the French empire

question

Navigation Acts

answer

-passed by Parliament to increase military power and private wealth -First act passed in 1651 to reduce Dutch domination of the Atlantic trade -Required most goods imported from Europe into Britain be carried on British-owned ships or on ships of the country producing that specific good -Gave merchants and ship owners a virtual monopoly on trade with the colonies

question

Triangular Trade

answer

Revolved around the West Indies (Caribbean) and included North America and Africa

question

Dutch Republic

answer

-First half of the 17th century saw the Netherlands as the world's dominant maritime power: "Golden Age of the Netherlands" --The middle class (burghers) dominated politics and the economy. --Gov't was decentralized and didn't obstruct the economy --Religious toleration enabled foreign merchants to live there without persecution

question

Three Anglo-Dutch Wars

answer

-1652 and 1674 damaged Dutch shipping and commerce -New Amsterdam seized by England in 1664; renamed "New York" -By late-17th century, Dutch were falling behind England in shipping, trade, and colonies -England and Netherlands became allies against expansion of Louis XIV in late-17th and early-18th centuries

question

Wars of Louis XIV further ________ Dutch trade in the Atlantic

answer

weakened

question

Netherlands switched its focus to ______ rather than______ and managed to survive intact

answer

banking: trade

question

Dutch were first to perfect the use of _____ ________

answer

paper currency

question

Stock market in _________was the most important in Europe

answer

amsterdam

question

A _______ ____ was created

answer

central bank

question

Slave Trade

answer

-Dramatic growth in the Atlantic trade was largely due to the growth of slave labour -About 10 million Africans were transported to the New World in the 17th and 18th centuries. --Half of all slaves were carried on British ships; 25% French --Most slaves captured by rival African tribes who traded slaves for European goods --Between 20% to 1/3 died en route -Most slaves sent to Brazil or the West Indies to work sugar plantations -. As many as 400,000 sent to British North American colonies - Slave trade decreased by the 1780s

question

The "Bubbles"

answer

-Both Britain and France faced enormous national debts due to numerous wars. -The South Sea Bubble, 1720 --1719, British gov't gave the South Sea Company rights to take over the national debt -- A speculative frenzy drove stock prices higher. --The bubble burst in 1720 resulting in the first large-scale financial crash

question

Mississippi Bubble, 1720

answer

-Mississippi Co. granted a monopoly by the French gov't on trade with French Louisiana in North America -1719, the company took over France's nat'l debt in exchange for company shares of stock - The bubble burst in 1720 and the Mississippi Co. was ruined -Nat'l debt in France remained staggering and played a role in the French Revolution 70 years later

question

Colonial wars

answer

- Background --Between 1689 and 1783 Britain and France were the two main adversaries in the colonial wars for empire. --Spain and the Netherlands were in relative decline. --In effect, these wars were world wars as they were fought in Europe, at sea, and in North America.

question

War of Spanish Succession (1701-13)

answer

-Cause: Bourbons and Louis XIV sought to control the thrones of France and Spain threatening Britain's North American empire and Europe's balance of power -Peace of Utrecht (1713) --France lost northeastern lands in New France to Britain --Britain gained the asiento (slave trade) from Spain --Spain allowed one British ship of goods per year through Panama

question

War of Jenkins' Ear (1739)

answer

between Britain and Spain merged into the War of Austrian Secession

question

War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

answer

-Involved battles between England and France in North America and India -Spain fought effectively to keep its empire intact -Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748) kept the status quo

question

Seven Years' War (1756-63); (French and Indian War, 1754-1763)

answer

-Biggest world war of 18th century -Began in the Ohio Valley -French forces and American Indian allies fought British and American colonial forces for control of North America. -William Pitt changed British war strategy by focusing largely on North America, not Europe -British navy victorious -Spanish support for France failed -treaty of paris

question

Treaty of Paris, 1763

answer

-Most important peace treaty since Westphalia in 1648 -France was removed from North America -France accepted British domination of India -Spain ceded Florida to Britain in return for Cuba and Philippines -Britain thus became the world's dominant colonial power.

question

The American Revolution (1775-1783)

answer

-To weaken Britain's empire, France gave significant financial and military support to the U.S. in its successful war for independence. -The 13 American colonies had been Britain's most valuable colonies.

question

spain colony

answer

-In the 18th century, Spain's colonies remained an important part of the Atlantic economy (e.g. silver mining) -Recovered under Philip V (Louis XIV's grandson) -Creole elite challenged Spanish authority in Latin America -Mestizos represented about 1/3 of the population -Slavery in Cuba & Puerto Rico

question

Portuguese Brazil

answer

-Sugar plantations in Brazil required massive slavery. -By the early 19th century, half of Brazil's population was of African descent. -Portuguese, Indian and African populations in Brazil intermixed socially more than in the Spanish empire, resulting in a multi-color population.

question

Life in the 18th Century . Marriage and the family prior to the 17th century

answer

-Nuclear family most common in pre-industrial Europe. -Average age of marriage higher -Some areas required legal permission or approval of local lord or landowner for marriage -Many people never married

question

Children

answer

-Rate of out-of-wedlock births was low -Premarital sex limited to those already thinking about marriage -Number of children for family --If parents lived to age 45, average number of children was about 6 --High infant mortality --50% survival rate into adulthood considered good

question

New Patterns of Marriage and Legitimacy after 1750

answer

-Growth of cottage industry resulted in more people marrying for love. --Prior to 18th century: economic reasons -Explosion of births was caused by increasing illegitimacy: 1750-1850 -Women in cities and factories had limited economic independence

question

Changes in attitudes toward children

answer

-Child care and nursing --Poor women breastfed their children for several years. --Aristocratic and bourgeoisie women seldom breastfed. ---Wet-nurses were hired -Infanticide was rampant due to severe poverty. ---- Foundling hospitals founded to care for abandoned children

question

Child rearing

answer

-Children were treated with indifference and strict physical discipline --Caused by high mortality rates -"Spare the rod and spoil the child"—Daniel Dafoe -Enlightenment and humanitarianism emphasized better treatment of children

question

Work away from home

answer

-Many young people worked within their families until they could start their own -Increasingly, many boys worked away from home -Large numbers of girls also worked away from home at an early age -- Less opportunities than males -- Domestic work most common --- Prostitution and petty thievery sometimes occurred

question

Education

answer

-Beginnings of formal education took root in Protestant countries -Prussia established compulsory education in 1717 -The Enlightenment reinforced education -Literacy increased dramatically

question

Increased life-expectancy occurred

answer

-Average life span of Europeans increased from 25 years to 35 years in the 18th century -Development of public health techniques was important in the last half of the 18th century -Better diet due to the Agricultural Revolution and Columbian Exchange improved health

question

Medical improvements

answer

-Bubonic plague disappeared by 1700 -Conquest of small pox was the greatest medical triumph of the 18th century -- Edward Jenner (1749-1823) created the foundation for immunology with his vaccine for small pox -Humanitarianism led to hospital reform

question

Religious reform continued in the 18th century

answer

-Pietism and Methodism provided challenge to established churches -"Pietism" in Germany caused its Protestant revival -John Wesley (1703-1791) founded Methodism

question

The Arts in the 18th century

answer

-visual arts --Rococo (mid-18th century France) ---Identified with the court of Louis XV ---Works often focused on playful scenes of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie

question

Neo-Classicism (late-18th century France)

answer

-Characteristics --Return to the artistic style of ancient Rome, Greek ideals, and the Renaissance --Simplicity, balance, symmetry, restraint

question

Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825)

answer

- Death of Socrates (1787) -David painted numerous works glorifying the French Revolution -After 1800, David developed his "Empire style" that, in large part, glorified Napoleon's regime.

question

Neoclassical architecture

answer

Arc de Triomphe

expansion in the 18th century – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards