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social psychology

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branch of psychology that studies how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical environment

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sense of self

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an individual's unique sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences; your sense of who you are in relation to other people

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social cognition

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the mental processes people use to make sense of their social environments

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social influence

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the effects of situational factors and other people on an individual's behavior

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person perception

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the mental processes we use to form judgements and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of other people

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social norms

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the "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation

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social categorizarion

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the mental process of categorizing people into groups (or social categories) on the basis of their shared characteristics

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explicit cognition

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deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning

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implicit cognition

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automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgements, decisions, and reasoning

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implicit personality theory

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a network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviors

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attribution

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the mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own. Also refers to the explanation made for a particular behavior

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fundamental attribution error

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the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the effects of external, situational factors; an attributional bias that is common in individualistic cultures

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blaming the victim

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the tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event

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just-world hypothesis

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the assumption that the world is fair and that therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

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self-serving bias

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the tendency to attribute successful outcomes of one's own behavior to internal causes and unsuccessful outcomes to external, situational causes

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attitude

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a learned tendency to evaluate some object, person, or issue in a particular way; such evaluations may be positive, negative, or ambivalent

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cognitive dissonance

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an unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal (dissonance) that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions (cognitions) are inconsistent; typically results from the awareness that attitudes and behavior are in conflict

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prejudice

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a negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific social group

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stereotype

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a cluster of characteristics that are associated with all the members of a specific social group, often including qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define the group

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in-group

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a social group to which one belongs

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out-group

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a social group to which one dos not belong

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out-group homogeneity effect

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the tendency to see members of out-groups as very similar to one another

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in-group bias

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the tendency to judge behavior of in-group members favorably and out-group members unfavorably

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ethnocentrism

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the belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one's own cultures as a standard by which to judge other cultures

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implicit attitudes

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preferences and biases toward particular groups that are automatic, spontaneous, unintentional, and often unconscious; measured with the Implicit Associations Test (IAT)

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conformity

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adjusting your opinions, judgements, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments, and behavior other other people, or the norms of a social group or situation

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normative social influence

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behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval

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informational social influence

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behavior that is motivated by the desire to be correct

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obedience

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the performance of a behavior in response to a direct command

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altruism

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helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit

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prosocial behavior

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any behavior that helps another, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless

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bystander effect

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a phenomenon in which the greater number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress

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diffusion of responsibility

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a phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among all onlookers

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persuasion

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the deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes or behaviors of another person in a situation in which that person has some freedom of choice

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psychopathology

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the scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders

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psychological disorder (mental disorder)

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a pattern of behavior and psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress, impairs the ability to functioning one or more important areas of life, or both

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DSM-IV-TR

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abbreviation for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision; the book published by the American Psychiatric Associations that describes the specific symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for different psychological disorders

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anxiety

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an unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry

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anxiety disorders

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a category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is the main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in the person's cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal functioning

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generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

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an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety; also called free-floating anxiety

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panic attack

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a sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity

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panic disorder

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an anxiety disorder in which the person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks

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agoraphobia

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an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of experiencing a panic attack in a public situations and being unable to escape or get help

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phobia

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a persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity

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specific phobia

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an excessive, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety

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social phobia (social anxiety disorder)

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an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations

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post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

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an anxiety disorder in which chronic and persistent symptoms of anxiety develop in response to an extreme physical or psychological trauma

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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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an anxiety disorder in which the symptoms of anxiety are triggered by intrusive, repetitive thoughts and urges to perform certain actions

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obsessions

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repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety or distress

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compulsions

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repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to prevent or reduce anxiety

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mood disorders

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a category of mental disorders in which significant and persistent disruptions in mood or emotions cause impaired cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning; also called affective disorders

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major depression

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a mood disorder characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness, causing impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning

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seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

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a mood disorder in which episodes of depression typically occur during the fall and winter and subside during the spring and summer

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dysthymia disorder

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a mood disorder involving chronic, low-grade feelings of depression that produce subjective discomfort but do not seriously impair the ability to function

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bipolar disorder

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a mood disorder involving periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formerly called manic depression

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manic episode

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a sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech

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cyclothymic disorder

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a mood disorder characterized by moderate but frequent mood swings that are not severe enough to qualify as bipolar disorder

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eating disorder

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a category of mental disorders characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior

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anorexia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by excessive weight loss, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body self-perception

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bulimia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, or other inappropriate methods to purge the excessive food and prevent weight gain

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personality disorder

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inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and I interpersonal functioning that are stable over time and across situations, and that deviate from the expectations of the individual's culture

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antisocial personality disorder

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a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others; such individuals are also often referred to psychopaths or sociopaths

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borderline personality disorder

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a personality disorder characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and marked impulsivity

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dissociative experience

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a break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity become separated or divided

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dissociative disorders

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a category of psychological disorders in which extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function

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dissociative amnesia

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a dissociative disorder involving the partial or total inability to recall important personal information

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dissociative fugue

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a dissociative disorder involving sudden and unexpected travel away from home, extensive amnesia, and identity confusion

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dissociative identity disorder (DID)

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a dissociative disorder involving extensive memory disruptions along with the presence of two or more distinct identities, or "personalities"; formerly called multiple personality disorder

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schizophrenia

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a psychological disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes

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positive symptoms

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in schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect excesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts and behavior

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negative symptoms

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in schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect defects or deficits in normal functioning, including flat affect, alogia, and avolition

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delusion

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a falsely held belief that persists despite compelling contradictory evidence

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hallucination

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a false or distorted perception that seems vividly real to the person experiencing it

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dopamine hypothesis

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the view that schizophrenia is related to, and may be caused by, excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain

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psychotherapy

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the treatment of emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems through the use of psychological techniques and designed to encourage understanding of problems and modify troubling feelings, behaviors, or relationships

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biomedical therapies

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the use of medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical treatments to treat the symptoms associated with psychological disorders

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psychoanalysis

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a type of psychotherapy originated by Sigmund Freud in which free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts

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free association

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a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the patient spontaneously reports all thoughts, feelings, and mental images as they come to mind, as a way of revealing unconscious thoughts and emotions

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resistance

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in psychoanalysis, the patient's unconscious attempts to block the revelation of repressed memories and conflicts

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dream interpretation

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a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the content of dreams is analyzed for disguised or symbolic wishes, meanings, and motivations

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interpretation

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a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the psychoanalyst offers a carefully timed explanation of the patient's dreams, free associations, or behaviors to facilitate the recognition of unconscious conflicts or motivations

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transference

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in psychoanalysis, the process by which emotions and desires originally associated with a significant person in the patient's life, such as a parent, are unconsciously transferred onto the psychoanalyst

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short-term dynamic therapies

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type of psychotherapy that is based on psychoanalytic theory but differs in that it is typically time-limited, has specific goals, and involves an active, rather than neutral, role for the therapist

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interpersonal therapy (IPT)

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a brief, psychodynamic psychotherapy that focuses on current relationships, and is based on the assumption that symptoms are caused and maintained by interpersonal problems

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client-centered therapy

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a type of psychotherapy developed by humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers in which the therapist is nondirective and reflective, and the client directs the focus of each therapy session; also called person-centered therapy

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behavior therapy

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a type of psychotherapy that focuses on directly changing maladaptive behavior patterns by using basic learning principles and techniques; also called behavior modification

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counterconditioning

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a behavior therapy technique based on classical conditioning that involves modifying behavior by conditioning a new response that is compatible with a previously learned response

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systematic desenstitization

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a type of behavior therapy in which phobic responses are reduced by pairing relaxation with a series of mental images or real-life situations that the person finds progressively more fear-provoking; based on the principle of counterconditioning

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aversive conditioning

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a relatively ineffective type of behavior therapy that involves repeatedly pairing an aversive stimulus with the occurrence of undesirable behaviors or thoughts

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token economy

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a form of behavior therapy in which the therapeutic environment is structured to reward desired behaviors with tokens or points that may eventually be exchanged for tangible rewards

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cognitive therapies

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a group of psychotherapies based on the assumption that psychological problems are due to illogical patterns of thinking; treatment techniques focus on recognizing and altering these unhealthy thinking patterns

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rational-emotive therapy (RET)

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a type of cognitive therapy, developed by psychologist Albert Ellis, that focuses on changing the client's irrational beliefs

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cognitive therapy (CT)

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theory developed by Aaron T. Beck that focuses on changing the client's unrealistic and maladaptive beliefs

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cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

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therapy that integrates cognitive and behavioral techniques and that is based on the assumption that thoughts, moods, and behaviors are interrelated

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group therapy

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a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working with a small group of clients

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family therapy

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a form of psychotherapy that is based on the assumption that the family is a system and treats that family as a unit

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eclecticism

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the pragmatic and integrated use of techniques for different psychotherapies

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eye movement desensitization reprocessing (EMDR)

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therapy technique in which the client holds a vivid mental image of a troubling event or situation while rapidly moving his or her eyes back and forth in response to the therapist's waving finger while the therapist administers some other form of bilateral stimulation

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exposure therapy

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behavioral therapy for phobias, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, or related anxiety disorders in which the person is repeatedly exposed to the disturbing object or situation under controlled conditions

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psychotropic medicaitons

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drugs that alter mental functions, alleviate psychological symptoms, and are used to treat psychological or mental disorders

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antipsychotic medications

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prescription drugs that are used to reduce psychotic symptoms; frequently used in the treatment of schizophrenia; also called neuroleptics

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atypical antipsychotic medications

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newer antipsychotic medications that, in contrast to the early antipsychotic drugs, block dopamine receptors in brain regions associated with psychotic symptoms rather than more globally throughout the brain, resulting in fewer side effects

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antianxiety medications

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prescription drugs that are used to alleviate symptoms of anxiety

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lithium

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a naturally occurring substance that is used in the treatment of bipolar disorder

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antidepressant medications

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a prescription drugs that are used to reduce the symptoms associated with depression

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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

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class of antidepressant medications that increase the availability of serotonin in the brain and cause fewer side effects than earlier antidepressants; they include Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft

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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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a biomedical therapy used primarily in the treatment of depression that involves electrically inducing a brief brain seizure; also called electroshock therapy

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