question

academic argument

answer

Writing that is addressed to an audience well informed about the topic, that aims to convey a clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal style, and that follows agreed-upon conventions of usage, punctuation, and formats.

question

accidental condition

answer

In a definition, an element that helps to explain what's being defined but isn't essential to it. An accidental condition in defining a bird might be "ability to fly" because most, but not all, birds can fly. (See also essential condition and sufficient condition.)

question

ad hominem argument

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a writer's claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his or her character.

question

analogy

answer

An extended comparison between something unfamiliar and something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar. An analogy might, say, compare nuclear fission (less familiar) to a pool player's opening break (more familiar).

question

anaphora

answer

A figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the beginning of several clauses.

question

antithesis

answer

The use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts or opposites, as in 'Some like it hot; some like it cold'.

question

antonomasia

answer

Use of a title, epithet, or description in place of a name, as in 'Your Honor' for Judge.

question

argument

answer

(1) A spoken, written, or visual text that expresses a point of view; (2) the use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct from persuasion, the attempt to change someone else's point of view.

question

artistic appeal

answer

Support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence. (See also inartistic appeal.)

question

assumption

answer

A belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based.

question

assumption, cultural

answer

a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture, such as the belief in individual freedom in American culture.

question

audience

answer

The person or persons to whom an argument is directed.

question

authority

answer

The quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his or her subject and confident in that knowledge.

question

background

answer

The information a writer provides to create the context for an argument.

question

backing

answer

In 'Toulmin' argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant.

question

bandwagon appeal

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended on the grounds that everyone else is following it.

question

begging the question

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or dispute: Rita can't be the bicycle thief; she's never stolen anything.

question

casual argument

answer

An argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause, the cause(s) of an effect, or a causal chain in which A causes B, B causes C, C causes D, and so on.

question

ceremonial (epideictic) argument

answer

An argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of praise and blame. Also called epideictic, ceremonial arguments include eulogies and graduation speeches.

question

character, appeal based on

answer

A strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative or credible self image to convince an audience to accept a claim.

question

circumstantial evidence

answer

In legal cases, evidence from which conclusions cannot be drawn directly but have to be inferred.

question

claim

answer

a statement that asserts a belief or truth. In arguments, most claims require supporting evidence. The claim is a key component in 'Toulmin' argument.

question

classical oration

answer

A highly structured form of an argument developed in ancient Greece and Rome to defend or refute a thesis. The oration evolved to include six parts—exordium, narratio, partitio, confirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio.

question

confirmatio

answer

The fourth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer offers evidence for the claim.

question

connotation

answer

The suggestions or associations that surround most words and extend beyond their literal meaning, creating associational effects.

question

context

answer

The entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including the writer's purpose(s) for writing; the intended audience; the time and place of writing; the institutional, social, personal, and other influences on the piece of writing; the material conditions of writing (whether it's, for instance, online or on paper, in handwriting or print); and the writer's attitude toward the subject and the audience.

question

conviction

answer

The belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable. In a proposal argument, a writer must move an audience beyond conviction to action.

question

credibility

answer

An impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a writer in an argument.

question

criterion

answer

In evaluative arguments, the standard by which something is measured to determine its quality or value.

question

deductive reasoning

answer

A process of thought in which general principles are applied to particular cases.

question

definition, argument of

answer

An argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition: Pluto is not a major planet.

question

deliberative argument

answer

An argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy. Deliberative arguments include parliamentary debates and campaign platforms.

question

delivery

answer

The presentation of a spoken argument.

question

dogmatism

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it's the only conclusion acceptable within a given community.

question

either-or choice

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other.

question

emotional appeal

answer

A strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions (such as fear, envy, anger, or pity) in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim.

question

enthymeme

answer

In 'Toulmin' argument, a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason: The bank will fail (claim) because it has lost the support of its largest investors (reason). In classical rhetoric, an enthymeme is a syllogism with one term understood but not stated: Socrates is mortal because he is a human being. (The understood term is: All human beings are mortal.)

question

equivocation

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language.

question

essential condition

answer

In a definition, an element that must be part of the definition but, by itself, isn't enough to define the term. An essential condition in defining a bird might be 'winged': all birds have wings, yet wings alone don't define a bird since some insects and mammals also have wings. (See also accidental condition and sufficient condition.)

question

ethnographic observation

answer

A form of field research involving close and extended observation of a group, event, or phenomenon; careful and detailed note-taking during the observation; analysis of the notes; and interpretation of that analysis.

question

ethos

answer

The self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers. In arguments, most writers try to establish an ethos that suggests authority and credibility.

question

evaluation, argument of

answer

An argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet established criteria: The Nikon D3X is the most sophisticated digital SLR camera currently available.

question

evidence

answer

Material offered to support an argument. (See artistic appeal and inartistic appeal.)

question

example, definition by

answer

A definition that operates by identifying individual examples of what's being defined: sports car—Corvette, Viper, Miata, Boxster.

question

exordium

answer

The first part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer tries to win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject.

question

experimental evidence

answer

Evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be quantified (for example, a survey of students before and after an election might yield statistical evidence about changes in their attitudes toward the candidates). Experimental evidence is frequently crucial to scientific arguments.

question

fact, argument of

answer

An argument in which the claim can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony: The winter of 1998 was the warmest on record for the United States.

question

fallacy of argument

answer

A flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect.

question

false authority

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials.

question

faulty analogy

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or concepts is inaccurate or inconsequential.

question

faulty causality

answer

A fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that because one event follows another, the first event causes the second. Also called post hoc, ergo propter hoc; faulty causality forms the basis of many superstitions.

question

firsthand evidence

answer

Data—including surveys, observations, personal interviews, etc.—collected and personally examined by the writer. (See also secondhand evidence.)

question

forensic argument

answer

An argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past. Sometimes called judicial arguments, forensic arguments include legal cases involving judgments of guilt or innocence.

question

formal definition

answer

A definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it belongs (genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class (species): Baseball is a game (genus) played on a diamond by opposing teams of nine players who score runs by circling bases after striking a ball with a bat (species).

question

genus

answer

In a definition, the general class to which an object or concept belongs: baseball is a sport; green is a color.

question

grounds

answer

In 'Toulmin' argument, the evidence provided to support a claim and reason—that is, an enthymeme.

question

hard evidence

answer

Support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other evidence the writer finds.

question

hasty generalization

answer

A fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data.

question

hyperbole

answer

Use of overstatement for special effect.

question

hypothesis

answer

An expectation for the findings of one's research or the conclusion to one's argument. Hypotheses must be tested against evidence, opposing arguments, and so on.

question

immediate reason

answer

The cause that leads directly to an effect, such as an automobile accident that results in an injury to the driver. (See also necessary reason and sufficient reason.)

question

inartistic appeal

answer

Support for an argument using facts, statistics, eyewitness testimony, or other evidence the writer finds rather than creates. (See also artistic appeal.)

question

inductive reasoning

answer

A process of thought in which particular cases lead to general principles.

question

intended readers

answer

The actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address in a piece of writing.

question

invention

answer

The process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim.

question

inverted word order

answer

Moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual order (subject verb-object/complement) for special effect, as in 'Tired I was; sleepy I was not'.

question

invitational argument

answer

A term used by Sonja Foss to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but at inviting others to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems.

question

invoked readers

answer

The readers directly addressed or implied in a text, which may include some that the writer didn't consciously intend to reach. An argument that refers to those who have experienced a major trauma, for example, invokes all readers who have undergone this experience.

question

irony

answer

Use of language that suggests a meaning in contrast to the literal meaning of the words.

question

kairos

answer

The opportune moment; in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most opportune ways to make it.

question

line of argument

answer

A strategy or approach used in an argument. Argumentative strategies include appeals to the heart (emotional appeals), to character (ethical appeals), and to facts and reason (logical appeals).

question

logical appeal

answer

A strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to make audience members accept a claim.

question

metaphor

answer

A figure of speech that makes a comparison, as in 'The ship was a beacon of hope'.

question

narratio

answer

The second part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer presents the facts of a case.

question

necessary reason

answer

A cause that must be present for an effect to occur; for example, infection with a particular virus is a necessary reason for the development of AIDS. (See also immediate reason and sufficient reason.)

question

non sequitur

answer

A fallacy of argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another: 'If you're really my friend, you'll lend me five hundred dollars'.

question

operational definition

answer

A definition that identifies an object by what it does or by the conditions that create it: 'A line is the shortest distance between two points'.

question

parallelism

answer

Use of similar grammatical structures or forms for pleasing effect: 'in the classroom, on the playground, and at the mall'.

question

paraphrase

answer

A restatement of the meaning of a piece of writing using different words from the original.

question

partitio

answer

The third part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer divides up the subject and explains what the claim will be.

question

patchwriting

answer

A misuse of sources in which a writer's phrase, clause, or sentence stays too close to the original language or syntax of the source.

question

peroratio

answer

The sixth and final part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer summarizes the case and moves the audience to action.

question

persuasion

answer

The act of seeking to change someone else's point of view.

question

plagiarism

answer

The act of using the words, phrases, and expressions of others without proper citation or acknowledgment.

question

precedents

answer

Actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent actions. Precedents are particularly important in legal cases.

question

premise

answer

A statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based.

question

propaganda

answer

An argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth.

question

proposal argument

answer

An argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action: Sport-utility vehicles should have to meet the same fuel economy standards as passenger cars.

question

purpose

answer

The goal of an argument. Purposes include entertaining, informing, convincing, exploring, and deciding, among others.

question

qualifiers

answer

Words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim: usually; in a few cases; under these circumstances.

question

qualitative argument

answer

An argument of evaluation that relies on nonnumerical criteria supported by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic.

question

quantitative argument

answer

An argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated objectively.

question

reason

answer

In writing, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it. The reason may be a statement of fact or another claim. In 'Toulmin' argument, a reason is attached to a claim by a warrant, a statement that establishes the logical connection between claim and supporting reason.

question

rebuttal

answer

An answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge. Rebuttals may also be offered by writers who anticipate objections to the claims or evidence they offer.

question

rebuttal, conditions of

answer

In 'Toulmin' argument, potential objections to an argument. Writers need to anticipate such conditions in shaping their arguments.

question

red herring

answer

A fallacy of argument in which a writer abruptly changes the topic in order to distract readers from potentially objectionable claims.

question

refutatio

answer

The fifth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer acknowledges and refutes opposing claims or evidence.

question

reversed structures

answer

A figure of speech that involves the inversion of clauses: 'What is good in your writing is not original; what is original is not good'.

question

rhetoric

answer

The art of persuasion. Western rhetoric originated in ancient Greece as a discipline to prepare citizens for arguing cases in court.

question

rhetorical analysis

answer

An examination of how well the components of an argument work together to persuade or move an audience.

question

rhetorical questions

answer

Questions posed to raise an issue or create an effect rather than to get a response: You may well wonder, 'What's in a name?'.

question

rhetorical situation

answer

The relationship between topic, author, audience, and other contexts (social, cultural, political) that determine or evoke an appropriate spoken or written response.

question

Rogerian argument

answer

An approach to argumentation based on the principle, articulated by psychotherapist Carl Rogers, that audiences respond best when they don't feel threatened. Rogerian argument stresses trust and urges those who disagree to find common ground.

question

scare tactic

answer

A fallacy of argument presenting an issue in terms of exaggerated threats or dangers.

question

scheme

answer

A figure of speech that involves a special arrangement of words, such as inversion.

question

secondhand evidence

answer

Any information taken from outside sources, including library research and online sources. (See also firsthand evidence).

question

sentimental appeal

answer

A fallacy of argument in which an appeal is based on excessive emotion.

question

simile

answer

A comparison that uses like or as: 'My love is like a red, red rose' or 'I wandered lonely as a cloud'.

question

slippery slope

answer

A fallacy of argument exaggerating the possibility that a relatively inconsequential action or choice today will have serious adverse consequences in the future.

question

species

answer

In a definition, the particular features that distinguish one member of a genus from another: 'Baseball is a sport (genus) played on a diamond by teams of nine players (species)'.

question

spin

answer

A kind of political advocacy that makes any fact or event, however unfavorable, serve a political purpose.

question

stacking the deck

answer

A fallacy of argument in which the writer shows only one side of an argument.

question

stance

answer

The writer's attitude toward the topic and the audience.

question

stasis theory

answer

In classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments by determining the nature of a given situation: a question of fact; of definition; of quality; or of policy.

question

straw man

answer

A fallacy of argument in which an opponent's position is misrepresented as being more extreme than it actually is, so that it's easier to refute.

question

sufficient condition

answer

In a definition, an element or set of elements adequate to define a term. A sufficient condition in defining God, for example, might be 'supreme being' or 'first cause'. No other conditions are necessary, though many might be made. (See also accidental condition and essential condition).

question

summary

answer

A presentation of the substance and main points of a piece of writing in very condensed form.

question

syllogism

answer

In formal logic, a structure of deductive logic in which correctly formed major and minor premises lead to a necessary conclusion.

question

testimony

answer

A personal experience or observation used to support an argument.

question

thesis

answer

A sentence that succinctly states a writer's main point.

question

Toulmin argument

answer

A method of informal logic first described by Stephen Toulmin in 'The Uses of Argument' (1958). Toulmin argument describes the key components of an argument as the claim, reason, warrant, backing, and grounds.

question

trope

answer

A figure of speech that involves a change in the usual meaning or signification of words, such as metaphor, simile, and analogy.

question

understatement

answer

A figure of speech that makes a weaker statement than a situation seems to call for. It can lead to powerful or to humorous effects.

question

values, appeal to

answer

A strategy in which a writer invokes shared principles and traditions of a society as a reason for accepting a claim.

question

warrant

answer

In 'Toulmin' argument, the statement (expressed or implied) that establishes the logical connection between a claim and its supporting reason.

Everything’s an Argument with Readings 6th edition Glossary – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards