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Operant conditioning

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also called instrumental conditioning, is a kind of learning in which an animal or human performs some behavior, and the following consequence (reward or punishment) increases or decreases the chance that an animal or human will again perform that same behavior.

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Thorndike The law of effect

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states that behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened. says that if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future.

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operant response

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is a response that can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily measured.

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Shaping

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is a procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior.

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Superstitious behavior

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is a behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer.

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Reinforcement

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is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the behavior will occur again.

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punishment

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is a consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again.

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Pica

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is a behavioral disorder, often seen in individuals with mental retardation that involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances. This can result in serious physical problems, including lead poisoning, intestinal blockage, and parasites.

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Positive reinforcement

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refers to the presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again.

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positive reinforcer

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is a stimulus that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again.

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Negative reinforcement

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refers to an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again.

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primary reinforcer-

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is a stimulus, such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable. Food: primary reinforcer.

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A secondary reinforcer-

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is any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers.

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Positive punishment

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refers to presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response. The aversive stimulus decreases the chances that the response will recur.

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noncompliance

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refers to a child refusing to follow directions, carry out a request, or obey a command given by a parent or caregiver.

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time out

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removes reinforcing stimuli after an undesirable response. This removal decreases the chances that the undesired response will recur.

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negative punishment

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refers to removing a reinforcing stimulus (a child's allowance) after a response. This removal decreases the chances that the response will recur.

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schedule of reinforcement

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refers to a program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer.

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A cumulative record

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is a continuous written record that shows an animal's or a human's individual responses and reinforcements.

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Continuous reinforcement-

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means that every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer.

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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means that a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject.

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Fixed-interval schedul

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means that a rein- forcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time.

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Variable-interval schedule

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means that a reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an average amount of time has passed.

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operant conditioning, generalization

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means that an animal or person emits the same response to similar stimuli.

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classical conditioning, generalization

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is the tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response similar to the conditioned response.

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operant conditioning, discrimination

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means that a response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli.

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classical conditioning, discrimination

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is the tendency for some stimuli but not others to elicit a conditioned response.

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discriminative stimulus

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is a cue that a behavior will be reinforced.

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operant conditioning, extinction

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refers to the reduction in an operant response when it is no longer followed by the reinforcer.

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classical conditioning, extinction

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refers to the reduction in a response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus.

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operant conditioning, spontaneous recovery

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refers to a temporary recovery in the rate of responding.

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classical conditioning, spontaneous recovery

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refers to the temporary occurrence of the conditioned response in the presence of the conditioned stimulus.

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cognitive learning

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which involves mental processes such as attention and memory, says that learning can occur through observation or imitation and such learning may not involve any external rewards or require a person to perform any observable behaviors.

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cognitive map

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is a mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features.

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social cognitive learning

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results from watching, imitating, and modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward.

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The learning-performance distinction

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means learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately evident in, performance.

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bandura social cognitive theory

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emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors. Unlike operant and classical conditioning, this theory says that it is not necessary to perform any observable behaviors or receive any external rewards to learn. Attention, memory, motivation, imitation.

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insight

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is a mental process marked by the sudden and unexpected solution to a problem: a phenomenon often called the "ah-ha!" experience.

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biological factors

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refers to innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain kinds of learning.

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ethologists

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are behavioral biologists who observe and study animal behavior in the animal's natural environment or under relatively naturalistic conditions.

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imprinting

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refers to inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment.

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critical, or sensitive period

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refers to a relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur.

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Preparedness, or prepared learning, refers-

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to the innate or biological tendency of animals to recognize, attend to, and store certain cues over others, as well as to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others.

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behavior modification

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is a treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive learning.

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autism

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is marked by poor development in social relationships, such as not wanting to be touched, not making eye contact, and hiding to avoid people (see drawing); great difficulty developing language and communicating; very few activities and interests; and long periods of time spent repeating the same behaviors or motor patterns, or following rituals that interfere with more normal functioning. Symptoms range from mild to severe and usually appear when a child is about 2 to 3 years old (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

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biofeedback

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is a training procedure through which a person is made aware of his or her physiological responses, such as muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure, or temperature. After becoming aware of these physiological responses, a person tries to control them to decrease psychosomatic problems.

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learning

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is a relatively enduring or permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from previous experience with certain stimuli and responses. The term behavior includes any observable response (fainting, salivating, vomiting).

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classical conditioning

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is a kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus.

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cognitive learning

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- is a kind of learning that involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may be learned through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or requires the person to perform any observable behaviors.

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neutral stimulus

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is some stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but does not produce the reflex being tested. Ex] tone

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unconditioned stimulus

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or UCS, is some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink. Ex] food

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unconditioned response

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or UCR, is an unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. Ex] salivation

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conditioned stimulus

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or CS, is a formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. Ex] when you present the tone and no food.

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conditioned response

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or CR, which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, is similar to, but not identical in size or amount to, the unconditioned response. Ex} dog salivates only to the bell.

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generalization

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is the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Usually, the more similar the new stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned response. Ex] aftershave being the NS and dental tools as the UCS, then shampoo being generalization because it smells the same.

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discrimination

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occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others. Ex] nail polish because it smells different from the aftershave, produces pretty nail color.

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extinction

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refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditioned response. Ex] girls boyfriend using the same aftershave and lowering the conditioned response because there aren't any dental tools after.

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spontaneous recovery

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is the tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished even though there has been no further conditioning trials.

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adaptive value

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refers to the usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals and humans and tend to increase their chances of survival, such as finding food, acquiring mates, and avoiding pain and injury.

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taste-aversion learning

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refers to associating a particular sensory cue (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular sensory cue in the future.

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preparedness

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refers to the phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others. Ex] some animals have better vision than smell, vise versa.

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conditioned emotional response

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refers to feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event.

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Pavlov Stimulus Substitution

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means that a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus (tone) and unconditioned stimulus (food). After repeated trials, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus (tone) and acts like a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus (food). Thereafter, the conditioned stimulus (tone) elicits a conditioned response (salivation) that is similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus.

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contiguity theory

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says that classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus) are paired close together in time (are contiguous). As a result of this contiguous pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which elicits the conditioned response.

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Rescorla cognitive perspective

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says that an organism learns a predictable relationship between two stimuli such that the occurrence of one stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts the occurrence of another (unconditioned stimulus). In other words, classical conditioning occurs because the organism learns what to expect. Ex] seeing a pizza (conditioned stimulus) often leads to eating one (unconditioned stimulus), and your expectation causes salivation (conditioned response).

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anticipatory nausea

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refers to feelings of nausea that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea inducing chemotherapy treatments. Patients experience nausea after treatment but also before or in anticipation of their treatment. Researchers believe that conditioned nausea occurs through classical conditioning.

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systematic desensitization

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is a procedure based on classical conditioning, in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxiety. Systematic desensitization is a form of counterconditioning because it replaces, or counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation.

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