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conditioning

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a type of learning that involves stimulus-response connections, in which the response is conditional on the stimulus

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit an unconditioned response when that neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that normally causes an unconditioned response

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unconditioned stimulus

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits an unlearned, automatic response

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unconditioned response

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits an unlearned, automatic response

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conditioned response

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a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

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conditioned stimulus

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a previously neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a conditioned response

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taste aversion

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a type of classical conditioning in which a preciously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

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extinction

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in classical conditioning, the disappearance of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows a conditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after some time has passed

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generalization

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the tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that have similar characteristics

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discrimination

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1). in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish the conditioned stimulus from other stimuli that are similar; (2) unfair treatment of a person or group based on prejudice

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flooding

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a fear-reduction technique based on the principles of classical conditioning that involves exposing the individual to a harmless stimulus until fear responses to theat stimulus are extinguished

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systematic desensitization

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a type of counterconditioning, used to treat phobias, in which a pleasant, relaxed state is associated with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli

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counterconditioning

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a therapy procedure based on classical conditioning that replaces a negative response to a stimulus with a positive response

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operant conditioning

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learning that is strengthened when behavior is followed by positive reinforcement

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reinforcement

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a stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the frequency of that response

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primary reinforcers

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stimuli, such as food or warmth, that have reinforcement value without learning

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secondary reinforcers

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stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their association with a primary reforcer

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positive reinforcers

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encouraging stimuli that increase the frequency of a behavior when they are presented

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negative reinforcers

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unpleasant stimuli that increase the frequency of behavior when they are removed

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schedule of reinforcement

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refers to when and how often reinforcement occurs

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continuous reinforcement

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the reinforcement of a desired response every time it occurs

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partial reinforcement

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a type of conditioned learning in which only some of the responses are reinforced

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shaping

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in operant conditioning, a procedure in which reinforcement guides behavior toward closer approximations of the desired goal

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chaining

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in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to preogess toward a final action

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but remains hidden until there is a need to use it

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observational learning

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learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others

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distributed learning

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learning that occurs regularly and is distributed over time

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massed learning

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learning that does not occur regularly but occursall at one time

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Ivan Pavlov

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created the concept of classical conditioning, which came about by accident

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B.F. Skinner

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created Skinner box which was ideal for lab experiments

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stimulus

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a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue

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response

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A reaction, as that of an organism or a mechanism, to a specific stimulus

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reward

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reinforcement that increases the chance of behavior occurring

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punishment

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decreases frequency of behavior after it occurs; may not teach "right" behavior, must be consistent, may lead to anger rather than understanding

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Fixed Interval

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rewarded for behavior on a regular time schedule; per day, per week, etc.

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Variable interval

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time for reinforcement varies during conditioning, steady response rate because you don't know when you'll be rewarded

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Fixed ratio

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reward after every so many behaviors

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Variable ratio

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rate of reinforcement for behavior varies, don't know how many behaviors must happen for reinforcement, but you know it's coming

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Modeling

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the process of learning behavior through the observation and imitation of others

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PQ4R steps

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an active approach to learning is the PQ4R method; stands for preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review

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What did Pavlov's experiment teach us about learning?

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Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus. This causes a person or animal to learn by association.

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What causes a conditioned response to happen?

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a response that does not occur naturally but may be developed by regular association of some physiologic function with an unrelated outside event, such as ringing of a bell or flashing of a light. Soon the physiological function starts whenever the outside event occurs.

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How can classical conditioning be useful to animals and people?

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Taste aversions and how they keep our bodies safe from things and whatnot ya know how it goes

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What causes a conditioned response to become extinguished?

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When a conditioned stimulus is no longer following by an unconditional stimulus, it loses its ability to bring about a conditioned response. This process is called extinction. It occurs when the conditioned stimulus is disconnected from the unconditioned stimulus.

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What types of responses generally are controlled with operant conditioning?

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Voluntary responses

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How does a variable-ratio schedule provide reinforcement?

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Rate of reinforcement for behavior varies, don't know how many behaviors must happen for reinforcement, but you know it's coming

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What type of reinforcement schedule does a slot-machine operate on?

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Variable-ratio schedule

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Why do most psychologists suggest that punishment is not the best way to deal with problems?

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Only misbehavior is receiving attention, misbehavior may get reinforced

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What type of conditioning do primary and secondary reinforcers work best with?

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Operant conditioning

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In classical conditioning, what would a normally neutral event be called when after training it leads to a response?

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Conditioned stimulus

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In classical conditioning, what would an event that leads to an expected response be called?

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Unconditioned response

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Using the example from class, or one of your own, write down the steps involved in a classical conditioning experiment. Explain UCS, UCR, CS, and CR as they relate to the experiment you describe.

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Every time you take a shower, someone flushes the toilet in the house causing the water to turn cold and thus you become cold. Now every time you hear a toilet flush, you get cold. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Flushing toilet Unconditioned Response (UCR): Water turns cold Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Sound of flushing Conditioned Response (CR): You get cold

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Memory

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the mental functions and processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved; information stored in the mind

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Flashbulb memory

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memories from past that are clear and vivid, typically distinct, significant experiences

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Generic memory

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general knowledge people remember, may not know where you learned it, but it is something you know

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Procedural memory

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all the skills and procedures a person learns, skills you likely never forget over time

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Encoding

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the translation of information into a form that can be stored in memory

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Visual codes

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mental picture in mind

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Acoustic codes

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sound out loud; sounds

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Semantic codes

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making meaning out of something, allows greater memory; longer too

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Storage

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the maintenance of encoded information over time

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Maintenance rehearsal

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the repetition of new information in an attempt to remember it

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Elaborative rehearsal

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methods for remembering new information by creating meaningful links to information already known

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Retrieval

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the process of recalling information from memory storage

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Context-dependent

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information that is more easily retrieved in the context or situation in which it was encoded and stored

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State-dependent

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information that is more easily retrieved when one is in the same physiological or emotional state as when the memory was originally encoded or learned

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Tip-of-the-tongue

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feeling-of-knowing experience that you are having trouble verbalizing

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Sensory memory

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the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

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Iconic memory

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the sensory register that briefly holds mental images of visual stimuli

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Echoic memory

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the sensory register that briefly holds traces of aural stimuli

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Eidetic imagery

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the maintenance of a very detailed visual memory over long periods of time

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Short-term memory

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also called working memory, memory that holds information briefly before it is either stored in long-term memory or forgotten

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Chunking

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the mental process of organizing information into meaningful units, or "chunks"

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Interference

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the process that occurs when new information in short-term memory pushes or crowds out and replaces what was already there

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Long-term memory

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the type or stage of memory capable of large and relatively permanent storage

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Schemas

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an idea or mental framework that helps one organize and interpret information

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Recognition

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a memory process in which one identifies objects or events that have previously been encountered

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Recall

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non-immediate retrieval of learned information

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Relearning

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learning something a second time, usually in less time than it was originally learned

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Decay

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disintegration; in psychology, the fading away of memory over time

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Mnemonic devices

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techniques a person can use to help them improve their ability to remember something. In other words, it's a memory technique to help your brain better encode and recall important information

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What type of memory would the skills needed to ride a bike be stored under?

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Implicit memory

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What type of memory would the facts you learn in school be stored under?

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Semantic memory

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Why are flashbulb memories vivid?

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We usually pay more attention to the events that have special meaning to us

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How do computers and people compare when it comes to processing information?

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The human brain and a computer work very similarly to process information, they encode, store, and retrieve information

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What idea suggests that studying for a test in the same room as the exam will help with memory?

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Context-Dependent memories

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What are the three stages of memory?

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Sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory

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How long does information last in short-term memory?

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Info in short-term memory fades rapidly after several seconds

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How many items can a person hold in short-term memory?

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18-20 seconds

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Which of the three memory tasks is the easiest?

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Recognition

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Why does relating new information to something known help with memory?

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It is effective because it involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory.

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Name and describe the three stages of memory. Be sure to explain what we are able to remember and how long we are able to remember in each stage.

answer

Sensory Memory First stage of memory; initial recording of info Impression of image, sound, etc. lasting only a second or two without effort to keep it Iconic memory: snapshot of memory lasting only a second Eidetic memory: "photographic" memory; 5% of children, declines with age Echoic memory: remembering sounds; sound lasts longer than sight Short-Term Memory Thoughts in your mind at any given moment, working memory Must rehearse information to keep it; fades without rehearsal; fades without repetition within 18-20 seconds Primacy/Recency: tendency to remember first or last items in a series Chunking: grouping items together, 7 unrelated items (chunks); lose infor without intent to learn Interference: new info takes place of old info Long-Term Memory Final stage of memory; storage for future use No limits to memory capacity, only attention we give to everything; unlimited Reconstructing memories is subjective; put own personal spin Past experience influences how we remember events

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Using a personal example, explain the three steps of memory

answer

You are given something to know so that you may remember it for a test, so this is your initial recording of this information (sensory memory). In order to remember what you have just perceived, you must do something with that info quickly before it passes. In order to remember what you need to remember for the test, you have to rehearse this information to keep it, or it fades away after 18-20 seconds (Short-Term Memory). If enough attention is given to what you need to know for the test, and the proper maintenance rehearsal is given, this information can then move forward into your long-term memory.

Psychology Unit 3: Learning and Cognition – Flashcards

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