PSY 410: Psychology of Learning and Motivation – Flashcards
Functional relationships- cause and effect of overt (observable) behavior
true experiment- control groups and random assignment
Aversive: something the subject doesn’t want, or to stop behavior
Satiation: not going to be as motivated; e.g. if you just ate at a buffet, you aren’t going to be hungry or motivated to eat
spatial: close together in a physical sense
ex: no grades or feedback till the end of the class, your not going to get that reward or reinforcement to work hard. Closer in time, the more effective– use a clicker with dogs to train them
ex: There is a class of first graders and acts of aggression; hitting other kids and variations of “hitting”, how do you define hitting. What is the benchmark of hitting?
80% acceptable
90% optimal
intensity (force, magnitude, amount), duration, speed, latency (time to response)
interval – response occurs at least once within specified intervals
time-sample- discountinuous interval
topography- how behavior is performed
error rate- how many mistakes were made
AB: compares baseline (A) to treatment (B)
– any behavior you want to measure (aggression) how many of these acts before you do anything. Ideally, you do this before you are in the environment. # of aggressive acts before you step in and observe
ABAB/Reversal: multiple treatments and withdrawal
ABCAC: Stronger or different treatment (C)
-same thing but seeing if there is higher measure or effect with C
Multiple Baseline: different subjects or settings
Naturally-occurring (adaptive) behaviors
Orienting response – automatically positioning oneself to view stimulus
Reflex (e.g., startle response)
Reflex arc
Fixed Action Pattern (e.g., cat scratching litter, dog bow to play)
-Sign stimulus activates specific fixed action pattern
-Some patterns can be modified by experience
-May not maintain adaptive function (e.g., animals zigzag when being “pursued”)
Loud noise -> startle response
Nausea -> avoidant response
Bad odor -> loss of appetite
Pain -> avoidant response
happens naturally in unconscious stimuli
Sensitization – strength of elicited behavior increases following repeated presentations
Effects of both may diminish if stimulus presentation is stopped
Can generalize to other stimuli
-Sensitization more likely to generalize
-Habituation is more stimulus-specific: small changes may re-elicit
e.g. Stanhope apartments being built while living at VC; became accustomed to it and within months hardly noticed it
-more likely to generalize because it poses to become a risk or threatening to the stimuli
e.g. People who chew with their mouths open
High intensity ☞ sensitization
Intermediate ☞ sensitization ☞ habituation
Adaptive Significance
-Higher adaptive significance/Relevance sensitization
◻︎as it a-process is activated, the body reacts by applying the b-process◻︎
Opponent-process (b-process): elicited by primary process
-Counteracts and compensates for the primary process to maintain homeostasis
-Independent of primary process
-strengthened and takes longer to disappear, just kinda keeps going
-Extreme initial fear followed by extreme relief/pleasurable sensations
-Repeated exposure: fear decreases, post-landing relief, and pleasure increases
Substance Use:
b-process expecting that a-process
-Initial pleasurable sensation
-Opponent-process produces unpleasant emotions (withdrawal)
-Return to homeostasis is slow during opponent-process
-Person attempts to return to homeostasis or pleasurable state by using substance
-Rats develop ambivalent behavior (approach/avoidance conflict) toward cocaine
-Both positive and negative reinforcement mechanisms
➢Immediate effects are reinforcing
➢State following effects is aversive
OR
initial emotions are erratic then you deliver bad news and emotions calm
a-process can be considered overly-emotional and b-process can be overly rational
➢NS: neutral stimulus
-Another stimulus naturally elicits the response
➢US: unconditioned stimulus
➢UR: unconditioned response
-The stimulus that did not elicit the response is paired with the stimulus that did, in “conditioning trials”
➢NS is paired with US
-The first stimulus then elicits the response
➢NS also elicits the UR, now called the CS and CR
“that was easy” youtube video of David & Bryan
-People can be liked or disliked depending on whether they are associated with appetitive or aversive stimuli
-How can you use this model on a date or interview?
—dating: go on a rollercoaster with the person you are dating because he likes it!
—Job interview: dressing up to make a good impression like if they think you dress well then they may end up hiring you because of that. OR hygiene; if you smell bad or smell too strong then that could effect if you get the job
*Note: this model is not based on operant conditioning
-> without them noticing they are associating you in a positive way
☞NS before US and overlaps
——>shock causes unconscious response, when you pair it with NS, they end at the same time
——>Most common and most effective
Trace Conditioning
☞NS starts and stops before US and does not overlap
—->The purpose of the tone is like a warning. Trace interval shouldn’t be too long or they won’t associate it with the conditioning response
Simultaneous Conditioning
☞NS and US at same time
—->can be effective but there is no warning
Backward Conditioning
☞US (shock) presented first, then NS
—-> rat gets a shot and then hears the tone. Not effective because it doesn’t give a lot of association between time and the order in which is easiest to learn
–>Onset of NS should immediately precede US
—>interval must be very brief
>Speed of acquisition generally rapid at first, then levels off
-the conditioning will stop
CR can be reacquired quickly (faster than acquisition)
Spontaneous recovery may also occur
-CR is usually weaker and easier to extinguish
-Several extinction sessions may be needed
– extinction is NOT unlearning the CR, but learning something new: to inhibit the CR
-connection between CS and CR is still there on some level, just inhibited
-spontaneous recovery represents weakening of inhibition during a rest period
-disinhibition- during extinction procedure, CR is suddenly recovered when new stimuli
-> semantic generalization- verbal stimuli that are similar in meaning (not sound or appearance)
Discrimination- CR is elicited more to one response than another
->discrimination training- deliberate training of discrimination (e.g., K9’s)
response may be anxiety or catatonia (also used with schizophrenia patients, just won’t respond anymore)
subjects differ in anxiety response (temperament?)
Eysenck’s Theory:
-introverts- highly reactive to external stimuli (condition easily)
-extroverts-less reactive and more tolerant of stimuli (condition less easily)
-extroverts: less reactive and more tolerant of stimuli (condition less easily)
aka second-order conditioning: video with the girl blinking
US: flash
UR: blinking
NS: tapping on the head
CS2 elicits weaker response than the conditioned stimulus
-> only indirectly associated with original, unconditioned stimulus
->how is 2nd-order conditioning different from generalization?
——with generalization, no pairing of CS1 and CS2 is needed
-Sensory preconditioning vs. 2nd-order conditioning?
—>Sensory preconditioning happens before the CS1 is conditioned
-CS2 also elicits weaker response than the conditioned stimulus (CS1)
-More effective with fewer preconditioning trials
—->Less familiar stimuli are easier to condition
—->Simultaneous pairing is usually most effective
want to create this in discrimination training
▹More salient = more important or noticeable
▹More salient stimulus is easier to condition
-Little to no conditioning occurs to the less salient stimulus
-Pairing a NS with a CS means the NS never becomes conditioned
-Presence of already conditioned stimulus blocks conditioning to the neutral stimulus
◼︎if you are using an elephant, it would be super noticeable, but if there was a book in the room it wouldn’t be as noticeable
-Why is this adaptive?
It could help prevent over stimulation
-When could this be maladaptive?
can tune things out and create things to be more difficult
-Occasion setting
-Occasion setting
Presence of occasion setter excitatory conditioning
Absence of occasion setter inhibitory conditioning
When Todd waits for me to get home from school, somehow he knows that I am coming home and he is waiting in the window for my car to pull up
= presence of occasion setter (additional stimulus) signals that NS/CS (bell) will be followed by US (food)
Presence of occasion setter ▶︎excitatory conditioning
Absence of occasion setter ▶︎ inhibitory conditioning
–> trying to train a dog with a good UR, bring it to a new dog park it won’t have the same NS because it is a new environment
New stimulus serves as a distraction
-Intensity of response changes to conditioned stimulus (bell)
-This change occurs without the modified US (large amount of food) ever being paired with the CS (bell)
-Any stimulus might be eliciting a response because subject is sensitized
-More common with emotionally arousing stimuli
—–>How can you tell if apparent conditioning isn’t just pseudoconditioning?
>Control group: receives NS and US, just separately
>Difference in experimental from control group response indicates level of conditioning actually occurring
What is the NS actually being paired with?
->Stimulus-Response Model connects NS with UR
The US (S-S Model)
->Stimulus-Stimulus Model connects NS with US
S-R Model and S-S Model
-Dog associates bell with salivation
S-S Model: neutral stimulus is associated with the unconditioned stimulus and then elicits a response directly related to unconditioned stimulus
-Dog associates bell with food
How do the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus become associated?
-Bell substitutes for food
-Unconditioned stimulus activates region of cerebral cortex, which then activates another part of the cortex
-Another part of the cortex is activated by the bell
-Connection forms between “food” region and “bell” region of cortex
S-R: predicts that conditioned response will be the same as/very similar to the unconditioned response
S-S Model
-Purpose of the conditioned response is to prepare for the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
-Sometimes the CR is actually the opposite of the UR
Conditioning results in a CR that is opposite from original UR
—>Opioids decrease blood pressure (UR)
—>Opioid cues should also decrease blood pressure
—>Opioid cues actually increase blood pressure
Compensatory response is also elicited (“b-process”/increase in BP)
Stimuli associated with the a-process eventually elicit the b-process…what does this sound like?
-Similar to 2nd-order conditioning
Decrease in blood pressure is both an UR and an US
-UR: occurs “naturally”
-US: elicits increase in blood pressure (b-process)
Compensatory response can also be psychological (e.g., tension)
Tension can be activated in the presence of cues
How can we “undo” the association???
—>Removal/avoidance of cues can prevent compensatory response
—>Or, exposure without “using” may extinguish (inhibit) compensatory response
—>There’s a limit to how much you can make a dog salivate
Associative value: strength of conditioning trials ( ≈ max value of asymptote)
Associative value must be distributed among conditioned stimuli (e.g., cues)
Stronger stimuli support more conditioning/associative value
different values to different stimuli but also have a maximum value it can reach
[Tone + Light] (V = 10) Salivation (CSs are fully conditioned, obtaining maximum associative value)
Tone (V = 6) 6 Drops of Salivation
Light (V = 4) 4 Drops of Salivation
blocking: When one stimulus is blocking the other it prevents the other from being effective, it kinda soaks up the stimulus value
Practical Applications: Phobias, Problem Behaviors, and Health
Phobias are extreme, irrational, and maladaptive
(Watson & Rayner, 1920)
page 190 in textbook
▷[A] (baseline): no reaction to rat, rabbit, dog, wool, etc.
▷[B] (treatment): Loud Noise (US): White Rat (NS) Startle Response (UR)
▷[A] (treatment withdrawn): Following 30-day break, tentatively reached for rat, but quickly withdrew hand
▷[B] (treatment): US:NS UR
Conditioning Test: rat presented without noise
Rat (CS) Startle/fear Response-crawling away (CR)
2. Temperament
3. Preparedness
4. History of Control
5. Incubation
6. US Revaluation
7. Selective Sensitization
UR: Fear of subject
NS: object that is incidentally conditioned
EX: Germs; being brought up in a household where germs were highly attempted to extort
Jerome Kagan and temperament demonstration
Why would temperament affect the likelihood of developing a phobia?
-personality you are born with; extraversion and introversion personality differences
Describe Valentine (1930) and Soares and Öhman’s
Valentine (1930) conditioned fear to caterpillar but not opera glasses in daughter
Soares and Öhman (1993) using shocks, conditioned anxiety to fear-relevant subliminal images (e.g., snakes), but not fear-irrelevant (e.g., flowers)
Monkeys exposed to fearful observation of fear-relevant stimulus acquired a conditioned fear reaction
-Both Jason and Samantha develop a fear of snakes but not flowers = preparedness
History of being able to control important events
Why is sense of control important in development of phobias?
be more aware of the cues and environment
-Lack of control➢stimuli signaling danger are more salient
-Exposures
-Conditioned
__________ (US) -> ____________ (UR)
__________(NS/CS)-> ___________(CR)
(severe) skateboarding injury and anxiety levels (strong)
__________ (US) -> ____________ (UR)
__________(NS/CS)-> ___________(CR)
minor skateboarding injury -> slight anxiety
skateboarding-> slight anxiety
section two:
severe injury-> strong anxiety
skateboarding -> strong anxiety
The more stress a person is experiencing, the more sensitive they may be
happens very systematically. Sounds like it is operant conditioning, but it isn’t because it’s not a reward to get the cookies, they are just paring the cookies and the rabbit together
✯Peter (2 yo): extreme fear of rabbits
✯Cookies paired with rabbit at a distance
✯Rabbit brought successively closer
✯Eventually Peter held rabbit while eating cookies
Why couldn’t Jones just feed Peter cookies with the rabbit very close?
-Counterconditioning has to occur first
-Cats fed in dissimilar room that gradually became more similar to shock room; eventually ate in chamber
-Counterconditioning: CS is associated with event that elicits an incompatible response
-Counterconditioning Pit bull and Vacuum
Layout:
1. __________________
– (the 3 examples) __________, _________, _________
2. __________________
– ______◀︎_________▶︎_______
– vivid __________ of feared stimulus
3. Paring of each ___________ __________ with _________
– _______s of visualization ▶︎ __________ until _________ does not produce __________
-Deep muscle relaxation, hypnosis, meditation
2. Hierarchy of Fear Exposure
– Very minor◀︎10-15 scenes ▶︎ maximum anxiety
– visualizations
3. (Pairing of each) Fear Exposure (with) Relaxation
– 10-30s (of visualization) ▶︎ relaxation (until) visualization (does not produce) anxiety
(In real life!)
-Generalization to real-life scenarios is much easier
-But, may not be practical
-Combination may be an option
Prolonged, Prevents, Max Opportunity, Can be, Does Not, Exposure
Prevents the avoidance response
Maximum opportunity to extinguish conditioned fear response
Can be imaginal or in vivo
Does not involve counterconditioning
Exposure has to continue until extinction occurs
-Pliny the Elder: spider in glass
-Modern-day aversion therapy: Disulfiram (Antabuse*)
-Covert sensitization: imaginal aversion therapy
-Why are nausea-based treatments more effective than shock-based treatments for alcohol abuse?
▷▷▷Preparedness
Russell et al. (1984), Bovbjerg et al. (1990), Buske-Kirschbaum et al. (1994)
-Bovbjerg et al. (1990): women receiving chemotherapy in hospital later showed immunosuppression
-Buske-Kirschbaum et al. (1994):
——>Sherbet (NS) paired with adrenaline (US) ➢ Increased natural killer cell activity (UR)
—–>Sherbet (CS) ➢ Increased NK cell activity (CR)
– Placebo effect is stronger when patient originally treated with actual drug
– Placebo by itself typically demonstrates extinction
Operant behaviors are behaviors that are influenced by their consequences
——->Behaviors “operate” on the environment to achieve a desired outcome (or avoid an undesirable outcome)
Behaviors -> satisfaction = strengthened or “stamped in”
-Behaviors -> dissatisfaction = weakened or “stamped out”
—>Rats or pigeons earn food pellets by pushing lever or pecking at a response key
—>”Free operant” procedure: rat does what it wants when it wants to
-Evolution in behaviorism: Behavior is not just reflexive/”respondent behavior”
—>Shift from mental processes to “effect of consequences on future probability of behavior”
—>Behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated
–any behavior you want to train
2. The consequence that increases or decreases the probability of a response
3. A discriminative stimulus that precedes the response
-Signals that a certain consequence is available
pigeons
Emitted by the organism, not the stimulus
Lever press Food pellet
->Effect: Future probability of pressing lever increases
-Occur after the behavior (consequence)
-Reinforcers: Strengthen the behavior
Probability of behavior increases
SR
-Punishers:
Probability of behavior decreases
SP
Probability of behavior increases
S^R
S^P
—->”Your behavior was bad” v. “You are a bad person”
-Reinforcer ≠ Reinforcement; Punisher ≠ Punishment
—>Reinforcers and Punishers are simply consequences
~~~~>Defined by their consequences/effect on behavior, not their intended effect
—>Reinforcement and Punishment refer to the process
Similar to “occasion-setting” in classical conditioning
~>But SD doesn’t elicit behavior, consequences do
Three-term Contingency:
(1) Antecedent S^D
(2) Behavior R
(3) Consequence S^R
Example:
Coffee shop Open Order coffee
Get coffee to drink
-Signals that behavior will be punished
S^Dp -> R ->
EX:
Parents home
Fight
Punishment
-Extinction (S^)
-Signals the absence of reincorcement
S^ -> R -> ——
EX:
Light on
Lever Press
No food
1) Positive Reinforcement (SR+)
2) Positive Punishment (SP+)
Negative: Something is Subtracted
3) Negative Reinforcement (SR-)
4) Negative Punishment (SP-)
Reinforcement – probability of behavior increases
Punishment – probability of behavior decreases
-Likelihood of behavior occurring again increases
Cleaning room R Ice cream S^R+
More likely to clean room in future
Likelihood of behavior occurring again decreases
Speeding R
Speeding Ticket S^P+
Less likely to speed in future
Likelihood of behavior occurring again increases
Spray Bug Repellent R
No Bites S^R-
More likely to use bug repellent in future
Likelihood of behavior occurring again decreases
Drink and Drive R
Lose License S^P-
less likely to drink and drive