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How the neuromuscular system functions to enable coordinated movement. How we produce and control our movements

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Motor Control

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1.) Acquisition of new skills 2.) Refining well learned skills 3.) Stages of Learning 4.) Reacquisition of skills

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Motor Learning

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1.) The Person (e.g. age, experience, genetics) 2.) Performance Environment (e.g. audience, temperature) 3.) The skill (e.g. required body movements)

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Three Influential Factors in Motor Learning and Performance

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Involves a goal. The goal can only be accomplished by some bodily movement. Has to be voluntary (reflexes don't count). Developed via practice.

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Motor Skill

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Component of a motor skill, behavioral characteristics of limbs. Motor skill may incorporate many movements

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Movements

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1.) Gross vs. Fine Motor Skills 2.) Begining vs. Ending Point of Skills 3.) Environmental Predictability

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Taxonomies

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What is the primary musculature being used. Gross motor skills involve large motor groups, less precision. Fine motor skills emphasize small motor groups, precision is becomes more important

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Gross vs. Fine Motor Skills

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1.) Discrete 2.) Continuous 3.) Serial

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Begining vs. Ending Points of a Skill (levels)

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specific beginning and end point (often done quickly and fairly simple)

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Discrete Motor Skills

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arbitrary beginning and end points, not clearly defined (e.g. repetitive motions, rowing, running)

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Continuous Motor Skills

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involves a collective sequence of discrete skills (e.g. playing the piano, typing)

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Serial Motor Skills

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1.) Closed Motor Skills 2.) Open Motor Skills

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Environmental Predictability (levels)

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stable environment, high performer control

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Closed Motor Skills

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adaptability is important, unpredictable environment, high performer ability required

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Open Motor Skills

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1.) 4x4 design 1.) Regulatory conditions (features of the environment) 2.) Inter-trial variability (do regulatory conditions change from one trial to the next) 3. Body Movement (do you move your body) 4.) Object Manipulation (do you have to hold an object, kick an object ect.)

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Gentile's Taxonomy of Motor Skills

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1.) Guide for evaluating capabilities and limitations 2.) Helps others to design challenging yet realistic goals (moves from easier to more difficult from upper left to lower right) 3.) Helps to chart progress

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Importance of Gentile's Taxonomy

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1.) Everyone has a single global motor ability 2.) Place on a continuum if you are on the high end you are good at a lot if you are on the low end you are bad at a lot 3.) No evidence to support this 4.) Good explanation for the All around Athlete

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General Motor Ability Hypothesis

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1.) Each skill requires different abilities they are independent 2.) Much more empirical support 3.) We like to keep the All Around Athlete because of specific cases that do not reflect the norm.

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Specificity Hypothesis

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1.) A lot of overlap in skills for different sports 2.) Multi-limb coordination is useful for many different skills 3.) Common foundational ability 4.) Gene pool luck

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Explanation for the "All Around Athlete"

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used in a within subjects design

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Dependent t-test

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uses in a between subjects desgin

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Independent t-test

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Distance between actual performance and goal performance

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Accuracy

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The difference between the actual performance on each trial and the goal.

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Absolute Error

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the tendency to be directionally biased when performing a task (e.g. going to long, too short, always a bit to the right, ect.)

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Constant Error

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measures the consistency of the trials, the standard deviation of all of the trials

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Variable Error

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How are we coordinating the different parts of our body to perform a specific skill in many different situations

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Motor Control Theories

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Elements in the body that afford numerous action possibilities (e.g. joints, muscles)

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Degrees of Freedom

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How do we organize the degrees of freedom into the best possible movement pattern

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Coordination

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How we coordinate and control multiple degrees of freedom to produce a specific movement. How do we get everything to work in the way we want it to

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Degrees of Freedom Problem

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We have a command center that will make all of our movement decisions for us.

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Motor Program Approach

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representation of a movement plan stored in memory

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Motor Program

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1.) there is a separate motor program for every movement

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Early Motor Program Theory

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1.) not enough memory storage space 2.) How can you retrieve a motor program for a skill you are learning

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Early Motor Program Theory Problems

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1.) Thought about motor programs as more general, looking at a class of actions that share common characteristics that can still be modified to produce a variety of response outcomes (fix memory issue)

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Generalize Motor Program (GMP)

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1.) Fixed set of characteristics 2.) Define the Motor Program

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Invariant Features (what are they)

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1.) Flexible characteristics that define the program's execution 2.)May depend on goal environment that may cause us to alter our movements in some way (fix novel movement issue)

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Parameters (what are they)

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1.) Sequence of Actions 2.) Relative Timing

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Invariant Features (common e.g.)

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1.) Overall Duration 2.) Overall foce 3.) Movement Direction 4.) Muscle Selection

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Parameters (common e.g.)

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Part of the GMP How do we know when to alter parameters? 1.) Schema - a set of rules that direct decision making when faced with a movement problem 2.) Every attempt adds to the schema

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Schema Theory

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1.) Initial Conditions - conditions present at the start of the movement 2.) Response Specifications - parameters in the execution of movement 3.) Sensory Consequences - sensory feedback 4.) Response Outcomes - success of movement attempts

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Schema (4 components)

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1.) Open Loop Control System 2.) Closed Loop Control System

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Motor Program Approach Control Systems

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you have a particular command and then that action is going to be carried out by your effectors, not much you can do to change or stop the motion. Once initiated, the process has to continue as planned. (e.g. throwing, kicking)

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Open Loop Control System

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you are able to use the feedback you get from you're movements to make adjustments while you are in the midst of the performance

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Closed Loop Control System

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Our movement patterns are going to self organize as a function of self, environment, and task. Self organizes from one attractor state to another through a transitional period

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Dynamic Interaction Approach

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a preferred behavioral state that is most stable an energy efficient.

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Attractor State

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Dynamic Pattern Theory - walking at a particular speed is an an attractor state, as speed increases, you move through a transitional period and running is another attractor state. GMP Theory - walking and running are two different motor programs

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Walking and Running (the two theories)

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How are we preparing our motor control system to carry out our intended actions

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Action Preparation

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1.) Stimulus Identification 2.) Response Selection 3.) Response Programming

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Stages of Information Processing

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Analyzing stimuli in your environment, using as many sensory systems as possible trying to get the best information possible. Also trying to filter out non-relevant stimuli. Perception phase of processing

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Stimulus Identification

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Trying to translate sensory information to a response. Pull apart your memory to make a decision

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Response Selection

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organize your motor system to produce desired movement. Getting organized up until the point of actually engaging in the action

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Response Programming

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1.) Number of Response Choices 2.) Predictability of Correct Choice

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Factors Influencing Time we Need to Prepare for a Task

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The time between stimulus presentation and movement initiation

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Reaction Time

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1 stimulus and you know exactly how to respond

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Simple RT

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more than one stimulus, each stimulus requires a specific response

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Choice RT

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as the number of stimulus response alternatives increase, your RT increases

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Hick's Law

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RT decreases if one response choice is more predictable. Trying to anticipate what will happen

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Predictability of Correct Response Choice

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Predicting what event will occur

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Event Anticipation

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predicting when an event will occur

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Temporal Anticipation

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1.) Warning Signal 2.) Precue

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Advance Information

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Will alert the performer that the stimulus is coming

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Warning Signal

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the time between when you are presented with the warning signal and the stimulus. Ideal foreperiod is 1-4 seconds. If the foreperiod is consistent RT is faster

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Foreperiod

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Environmental cues that can aid the performer in detecting advance information. Helps anticipatory efforts. A warning signal is a precue, but not all precues are warning signals.

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Precue

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If you were incorrect with your precue you have a slower reaction time than if a precue wasn't used; however, if precue is correct then RT is significantly faster

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Cost-Benefit Tradeoff

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A delay in response to the second stimuli. Only one action can be organized and initiated at a time

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Psychological Refractory Period

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1.) Stimulus Identification 2.) Response Selection

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Processing Demands

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1.) Reducing Uncertainty - systematically reduce the number of possible response alternatives. Asses the potential sucess of all the options 2.) Teaching a skill - alter different parts of the skill (gentile's taxonomy) 3.) Increasing Uncertainty - increase repertoire to fake out opponent

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Controlling Uncertainty

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Natural relationship between the stimulus and response choices (stroop task) Faster RT when the relationship is more compatible

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Stimulus Response Compatibility

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1.) Movement Complexity - more complex longer RT 2.) Movement Accuracy - requires more accuracy longer RT 3.) Repetition of Movement - more repetition will facilitate faster RT

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Influences on RT

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1.) Postural Preparation - certain muscles are activating outside our conscious control 2.) Limb Movement Characteristics - trying to help your limbs be ready for movement 3.) Force Needed to Manipulate an Object - are you pickign up a glas made of plastic or glass? 4.) End-State Comfort Control - what final position will be most comfortable

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Motor Control Activities During Action Preparation

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1.) Number of Response Choices 2.) Anticipation 3.) Foreperiod Consistency 4.) Psychological Refractory Period 5.) Stimulus Response Compatibility 6.) Movement Complexity 7.) Movement Accuracy 8.) Repetition of Movement 9.) Postural Preparation 10.) Limb Movement Characteristics 11.) Object Control 12.) Attention 13.) Arousal

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Factors Influencing RT

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1.) Focus on what is relevant 2.) Maintaining focus over time 3.) Ability to shift your focus 4.) Awareness of the situation

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Attention

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We have a filter that only allows certain information to be processed. This theory explains the psychological refractory period quite well.

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Bottleneck Theory

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1.) Central Resource Capacity Theory 2.) Multiple Resource Theories

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Attentional Resource Theories

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We have a large pool of attentional resources and they can be allotted in different ways. Flexible attentional capacity - depends on the individual, the task, and the environment

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Central Resource Capacity Theories

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Same idea as central resource theories, but we have multiple pools of attention. Tasks demanding attention from the same resource pool are more difficult

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Multiple Resource Theories

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Asses the degree of interference when simultaneously performing two tasks Primary task and Secondary task (causes interference)

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Dual Task Procedure

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Unlimited Capacity Unlimited Storage Duration

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Long Term Memory (features)

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1.) Declarative Knowledge 2.) Procedural Knowedge

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Systems within Long Term Memory

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1.) Episodic Memory 2.) Semantic Memory

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Declarative Knowledge (types)

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1.) Trace Decay 2.) Proactive Interference 3.) Retroactive Interference 4.) Attribute Similarity

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Causes of Forgetting

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Forgetting due to passage of time

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Trace Decay

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Something happening prior to the presentation of the relevant stimuli is getting in the way of you remembering the relevant stimuli

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Proactive Interference

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New learning interfering with what is already stored

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Retroactive Interference

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Forgetting is much more common if interference and the task have similar characteristics/attributes

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Attribute Similarity

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1.) Brain Practice 2.) Increase Meaningfulness of a Movement 3.) Intention to Remember 4.) Primacy Recency Effects 5.) Von Restorft Effect 6.) Subjective Organization (Chunking) 7.) Encoding Specificity Principle

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Enhancing Memory

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1.) Metaphoric Images (eg. swimming breathing, talking to fishes, listening to fishes) 2.) Verbal Label - hips facing wall ect. Reduces the complexity of instruction Makes the movement more concrete Direct Learners to the outcome rather than the movements themselves

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How to Increase the Meaningfulness of a Movement

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Information presented at the beginning and end is easier to remembered

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Primacy Recency Effects

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you have meaningful information presented in the middle

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Von Resorft Effect

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Grouping information into units

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Subjuctive Organization (Chunking)

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Greater similarity between practice and test contexts = better test performance

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Encoding Specificity Principle

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