Question 1

Biological influences

Accepted Answer

genetic predispositions unconditioned responses adaptive responses neural mirroring

Question 2

psychological influences

Accepted Answer

previous experiences predictability of associations generalization discrimination expectations

Question 3

social-cultural influence

Accepted Answer

culturally learned preferences motivation, affected by presence of others modeling

Question 4

biological constraints

Accepted Answer

evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals\' behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned than others

Question 5

instinctive drift

Accepted Answer

as the animals reverted to their biologically predisposed patterns.

Question 6

Cognition and Classical Conditioning

Accepted Answer

Classical conditioning treatments that ignore cognition often have limited success.  underestimated the importance not only of biological constraints, but also the effects of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectations).

Question 7

expectancy

Accepted Answer

an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur.

Question 8

cognition and operant conditioning

Accepted Answer

- acknowledged the biological underpinnings of behavior and the existence of private thought processes. - criticized him for discounting cognition\'s importance. -There is more to learning than associating a response with a consequence; there is also cognition

Question 9

cognitive map

Accepted Answer

a mental representation of the layout of one\'s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 10

latent learning

Accepted Answer

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Question 11

intrinsic motivation

Accepted Answer

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake limits of rewards, destroyed by excessive rewards

Question 12

extrinsic motivation

Accepted Answer

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 13

Classical Conditioning and Biological predispositions

Accepted Answer

Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.

Question 14

Classical conditioning and cognitive processes

Accepted Answer

Organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.

Question 15

Operant Conditioning and biological predispositions

Accepted Answer

Organisms most easily learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones.

Question 16

Operant conditioning and cognitve processes

Accepted Answer

Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Question 17

observational learning

Accepted Answer

learning by observing others supported by cognition with higher animals and humans

Question 18

modeling

Accepted Answer

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 19

vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment

Accepted Answer

by watching models

Question 20

fMRI

Accepted Answer

scans show that when people observe someone winning a reward (and especially when it\'s someone likable and similar to themselves), their own brain reward systems activate, much as if they themselves had won the reward

Question 21

mirror neurons

Accepted Answer

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain\'s mirroring of another\'s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 22

humans-> imitation is pervasive

Accepted Answer

Our catchphrases, fashions, ceremonies, foods, traditions, morals, and fads all spread by one person copying another

Question 23

ages

Accepted Answer

- 8 to 16 months, infants imitate various novel gestures  - By 12 months, they look where an adult is looking  - 14 months, children imitate acts modeled on TV  - 2Â½-year-olds, when many of their mental abilities are near those of adult chimpanzees, young humans surpass chimps at social tasks such as imitating another\'s solution to a problem - 2- to 5-year-old children overimitate

Question 24

Harry Potter

Accepted Answer

In experiments with elementary, high school, and college students, reading Harry Potter has reduced prejudice against immigrants, refugees, and gay people

Question 25

experienced/imagined pain

Accepted Answer

Brain activity related to actual pain (left) is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one (right). Empathy in the brain shows up in emotional brain areas, but not in the somatosensory cortex, which receives the physical pain input.

Question 26

prosocial behavior

Accepted Answer

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 27

antisocial behavior

Accepted Answer

his helps us understand why abusive parents might have aggressive children, and why many men who beat their wives had wife-battering fathers

Question 28

classical conditioning example

Accepted Answer

salivating when you smell brownies in the oven

Question 29

observational learning example

Accepted Answer

your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie

Question 30

latent learning example

Accepted Answer

knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark

Question 31

operant conditioning example

Accepted Answer

your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home

Question 32

biological predispositions example

Accepted Answer

disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili

Question 33

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

Accepted Answer

Classical conditioning principles, we now know, are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive: Each species learns behaviors that aid its survival. Biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.

Question 34

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

Accepted Answer

In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation.

Question 35

How does observational learning differ from associative learning? How may observational learning be enabled by neural mirroring?

Accepted Answer

In observational learning, as we observe and imitate others we learn to anticipate a behavior\'s consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. In associative learning, we merely learn associations between different events. Our brain\'s frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another\'s brain. Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process. (Others argue it may be more due to the brain\'s distributed brain networks.) The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words) as when we observe someone else performing those actions.

Question 36

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Accepted Answer

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model\'s actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

Question 37

Garcia and Koelling\'s __________ studies showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS).

Accepted Answer

taste-adversion

Question 38

Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. What evolutionary psychology finding does this support?

Accepted Answer

This finding supports Darwin\'s principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival.

Question 39

Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats running a maze develop ________

Accepted Answer

cognitive maps

Question 40

Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated _______________

Accepted Answer

latent learning

Question 41

Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called _____________

Accepted Answer

observational learning

Question 42

According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience reinforcement or punishment ___________

Accepted Answer

vicariously

Question 43

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if

Accepted Answer

their words and actions are consistent.

Question 44

Some scientists believe that the brain has ___________ neurons that enable empathy and imitation.

Accepted Answer

mirror

Question 45

Most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violence

Accepted Answer

dulls viewers\' sensitivity to violence.

Question 46

Learning that is not immediately demonstrated in overt behavior is called:

Accepted Answer

latent learning

Question 47

Albert Bandura studied _____ learning.

Accepted Answer

observational

Question 48

The concept of latent learning helps to demonstrate that:

Accepted Answer

rewards affect performance of what has been learned rather than the process of learning itself.

Question 49

Conditioned taste aversions demonstrate that:

Accepted Answer

certain stimuli are easier to associate than others because of cognition\'s influence on conditioning.

Question 50

One chimpanzee watches a second chimp solve a puzzle for a food reward. The first chimp then imitates how the second chimp solved the puzzle. This BEST illustrates:

Accepted Answer

observational learning

Question 51

Juan easily taught his cat to jump through a hoop but could not get the cat to fetch a ball and return it to him. The cat would chase the ball but use its paws to play with the ball. The cat would not fetch the ball because of:

Accepted Answer

instinctive drift

Question 52

Sonia, an adult with autism spectrum disorder, has difficulty inferring another person\'s emotions. The ability in which Sonia seems to have reduced function is called:

Accepted Answer

theory of mind

Question 53

Ray drank too much tequila last night. He spent much of the morning feeling nauseous and vomiting. According to the principles of classical conditioning, how will Ray likely react today when he smells the tequila bottle that he drank out of last night?

Accepted Answer

He will find the smell of tequila aversive.

Question 54

Teaching a dog to touch a target with its nose is fairly easy, because it works with the dog\'s:

Accepted Answer

natural instinct

Question 55

Ever since she foolishly drank too much tequila at a rock concert and vomited all over her best friend, Erin becomes nauseous at the smell of tequila. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is _____ and the conditioned response is _____.

Accepted Answer

the smell of tequila; nausea

Question 56

Four-year-old Katie observed Charlotte, two years younger, begin to cry when she fell down. Katie immediately ran over to Charlotte and patted her on the back and told her everything would be alright. She even began to cry herself. Katie\'s ability to infer Charlotte\'s mental and emotional state is an example of:

Accepted Answer

theory of mind

Question 57

Tina\'s goal is to raise children who enjoy playing musical instruments. Given what is known about observational learning, we should recommend that Tina should:

Accepted Answer

play her own musical instrument in front of her children.

Question 58

If Georgia gets violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, she will probably develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where she ate or to the sound of the music she heard there. This BEST illustrates that associative learning is constrained by:

Accepted Answer

biological predispositions

Question 59

In a famous experiment, Garcia and Koelling exposed rats to a particular taste, sight, or sound, then sickened them with radiation. The rats thereafter avoided that flavor but not the sounds or sights. What did this study demonstrate?

Accepted Answer

Animals will learn associations that promote survival, and rats identify tainted food by tasting it.

Question 60

Lana is in dental school and is learning the correct way to take an X-ray of the mouth. Her instructor shows the class a video that demonstrates the proper procedures, then demonstrates the procedures using Lana as a \"patient.\" The class is learning through the use of:

Accepted Answer

observational learning

Question 61

In _____, an organism develops an expectation that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus.

Accepted Answer

classical conditioning

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