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Learning

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The way in which we acquire new behaviors

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Stimulus

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Anything to which an organism can respond

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Habituation

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Decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to the same stimulus Opposite of sensitization When you get used to something

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Dishabituation

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Recovering the response after habituation occurs by presenting a second stimulus The 2nd stimulus interrupts habituation and causes new awareness of stimulus Ex: driving on freeway and get used to the drive, switch to get on a different freeway (new stimulus) causes more awareness of the drive

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Associative learning

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Creation of a pairing or association between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response

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Two types of associative learning

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Classical conditioning and operating conditioning

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Classical conditioning

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Type of associative learning that takes advantage of instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli Ex: Pavlov; Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus and UCR becomes CR UCS-->UCR + neutral stimulus-->no response = CS-->CR

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Acquisition in classical conditioning

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Taking UCS to turn neutral stimulus into CS The stimulus changes (neutral-->conditioned) but the response is the same

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Extinction in classical conditioning

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Habituation to the conditioned stimulus if it is presented without UCS enough times; conditioned learning of the CS-CR is lost Ex: Pavlov - ringing bell without giving treat, will no longer salivate Extinction is not permanent

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Spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

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Recovering classical conditioning after extinction by presenting the extinct conditioned stimulus again, but creates a weaker conditioned response Ex: Pavlov, dogs start to salivate again after hearing bell but not as much

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Ways to modify classical conditioning

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1. Generalization 2. Discrimination

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Generalization in classical conditioning

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When a stimulus that's similar to the conditioned stimulus produces the same conditioned response Stim 1-->response Stim 1'-->response Ex: Pavlov, dog salivates when it hears the bell and a doorbell ring

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Discrimination in classical conditioning

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Opposite of generalization, organism learns to distinguish between 2 similar stimuli Stim 1-->response Stim 1'-->X Ex: Pavlov, dog salivates for bell sound only, not doorbell ring

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Operant conditioning

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Links voluntary behaviors with consequences to alter the frequency of behaviors Behavior + consequence-->increase or decrease behavior

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Behaviorism

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B. F. Skinner, theory that all behaviors are conditioned

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Reinforcement in operant conditioning

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Increases likelihood of behavior 1. Positive 2. Negative

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Positive reinforcers

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Increases behavior by adding positive consequence following desired behavior Ex: employees continue to work if they get paid Behavior + good reward--> increased behavior

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Negative reinforcers

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Increases behavior by removing something unpleasant ex: losing fat will make you workout more Behavior - bad consequence--> increased behavior

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Two types of negative reinforcement

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1. Escape learning 2. Avoidance learning

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Escape learning in negative reinforcement

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Behavior that is learned to decrease unpleasantness of something that already exists Ex: learning to workout to decrease fat if already fat

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Avoidance learning in negative reinforcement

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Behavior that is learned to prevent unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen Ex: learning to study for MCAT to avoid low scores

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Punishment in operant conditioning

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Reduces likelihood of a behavior

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Positive punishment

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Adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behavior

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Negative punishment

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Reduces a behavior when a stimulus is removed Ex: parent doesn't allow child to watch tv for getting bad grades

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Fixed-ratio (FR) reinforcement schedule

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Reinforcing not behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior Ex: researchers reward rat with food every 3rd time it presses the bar

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Continuous reinforcement

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Type of FR, behavior is rewarded every time it's performed

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Variable ratio (VR) reinforcement schedule

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Reinforcing a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior; the average number of performances to receive a reward is constant Ex: rewarding rat after 2 presses, then 8 presses, then 4, then 6 Works the fastest and is the most resistant VR: very resistant and very rapid

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Fixed interval (FI) reinforcement schedule

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Reinforces behavior after a specified time period has elapsed Ex: rat received food reward but just wait 60 seconds before receiving another, even if it presses before time period

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Variable interval

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Reinforces a behavior after a varying interval of time Ex: rat doesn't wait exactly 60 seconds but instead 90 seconds, 30 sec, then 3 minutes

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Fixed schedules

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Fixed interval, fixed ratio Brief moment of no responses after behavior is reinforced

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Shaping in operant conditioning

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Method of behavior training in which reinforcement is given for progressively closer approximations of the desired target behavior Instead of waiting for exact desired behavior, any behavior leading to the target behavior is rewarded Ex: training bird to fly in a circle, treat for each slight turn

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Latent learning

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"Hidden learning" that is not used most of the time Learning occurs without a reward but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced Not apparent in learner's behavior at time of learning but manifests later when a suitable motivation appears Ex: learning where Pinkberry is, have fro-yo on sale so you recall where you learned where it is

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Problem-solving

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Trial and error learning in some animals but avoided in humans and chimps Observing situation and taking decisive action to solve

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Preparedness, deviation from operant/behaviorist approach

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Predisposition for animals to learn or not learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts Animals are more able (prepared) to learn behaviors that coincide with natural behaviors

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Instinctive drift

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Difficulty in overcoming this behavioral predisposition Hard to drift from instincts and to teach behaviors that conflict with natural instincts

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Observational learning

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Learning a new behavior or gaining info by watching others Not merely imitation because it can also teach individuals to avoid behavior Ex: bobo the doll

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Mirror neurons

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Located in the parietal and occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex Fire when individuals perform an action and observe an action Largely motor but may also be empathy Fire when we experience an emotion and when we observe someone experiencing emotion Role in imitative learning

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Modeling in observational learning

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Learning an acceptable behavior by watching others perform them Ex: antisocial behaviors learned when seeing violence and domestic abuse Is strongest when model's words are consistent with actions, i.e. children learn what parents do better than what parents say

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Encoding in memory

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Process of putting new info into memory

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Automatic processing in encoding

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Gaining info without effort Ex: noticing the temperature

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Controlled (effortful) processing in encodinf

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Active memorization, actively working to gain info Ex: using flash cards to memorize info can become automatic with practice (ex: learning language)

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Visual encoding in controlled processing

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Visualizing info Weakest type

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Acoustic encoding in controlled processing

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Storing the way info sounds

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Semantic encoding in controlled processing

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Putting info into meaningful context, the strongest type of encoding More vivid the context, the better

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Self-reference effect

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Putting info into context of our own lives, applying info to ourselves, best recall Type of semantic encoding

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Maintenance rehearsal

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Repeating info to keep it within working memory and to prevent from forgetting Or to store in short term memory then long term memory

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Mnemonics

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Way to memorize lists, often acronyms of rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of info we are trying to remember

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Two mnemonic techniques

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1. Method of loci 2. Peg-word

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Method of loci in mnemonic techniques

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Associating items on a list with a location along a route through a building Ex: memorizing grocery list, picturing carton of eggs sitting on door step, person spiking milk in front hallway, stick of butter in living room, etc

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Peg-word system in mnemonic technique

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Associating numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble numbers Ex: one-sun, two-shoe, three-tree

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Chunking, memory trick

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Involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning Ex: memorizing list of letters, making list of words that have to do with transportation

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Sensory memory

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First and most fleeting kind of memory storage Consists of iconic and echoic memory Lasts only a very short time but on e eyes and ears can take in detailed representation of our surroundings that we can recall with great precision

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Whole report

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A procedure of testing memory when asked to list all letters previously seen

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Partial report

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Procedure of testing memory when asked to list the letters of a particular row immediately after presentation of stimulus

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Iconic memory

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Type of sensory memory, visual memory that lasts only a short period of time Able to recall at will a small subset of the entire list

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Short term memory

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Fades quickly, over 30 seconds without rehearsal (limited in duration); can be increased by maintenance rehearsal Limited to the 7 +/- 2 rule, the capacity of the number of items that can be stored (limited in capacity); can be increased by clustering info

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Working memory

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Closely related to short-term memory, enables us to keep a few pieces of info on our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that info by integrating STM, attention, and executive function Memory that can be "worked with" Ex: memory that allows us to do simple math in our heads

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Long-term memory

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A limitless warehouse for the knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand for the rest of our lives STM can move to LTM with enough rehearsal, specifically elaborating rehearsal

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Elaborating rehearsal

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Way to move STM to LTM, the association of the information to knowledge that's already stored in the LTM Closely related to self-reference effect involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory.

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Two types of LTM

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1. Implicit (non declarative) 2. Explicit (declarative)

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Implicit (non declarative) memory

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Type of LTM Consists of our skills and conditioned responses Unconsciously recalled Includes procedural memory of skills and tasks Things we will always know how to do, don't have to actively think about it, like driving

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Explicit (declarative) memory

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Type of LTM Consciously recalled Memories that require conscious recall Can be divided into: 1. semantic memory (facts we know) 2. episodic memory (our experiences)

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Semantic memory

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Type of explicit/declarative memory of facts and concepts

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Episodic memory

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Type of explicit/declarative memory of events and experiences

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Procedural memory

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Type of unconscious implicit memory of skills and tasks

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Retrieval

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The process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained Can be demonstrated by recall, recognizing, or quickly relearning info

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Recall

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The retrieval and statement of previously learned information

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Recognition

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The process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned

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Relearning

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Process of quickly rememorizing list the second time through

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Spacing effect

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The longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on Why cramming is not as effective as spacing out studying

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Semantic network

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Organization of memory in the brain, as a network of interconnected ideas in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning and topics Topics are linked together by similarities

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Spreading activation

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When one node in our semantic network is activated, other linked concepts are unconsciously activated Ex: seeing the the word red, other linked concepts (Orange, roses, fire truck, green) are activated too

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Priming

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Recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory Ex: Can remember name of Scotty by seeing Scott toilet paper

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Context effects

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Retrieval cue, memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place Ex: facts learned underwater are better recalled when underwater than when on land

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State-dependent memory

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A person's mental state can affect recall, memory is easier to recall when in the same state as when it was first learned Ex: learning facts drunk will show better recall when performing tasks drunk than sober

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Serial position effect

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Retrieval cue that appears while learning lists -- first and last items on the list show higher recall

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Primacy effect

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Tendency to remember early items on a list Greater recall for first few items is greater over time

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Recency effect

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Tendency to remember late items on a list

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Alzheimer's disease

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Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of ACh in neurons linked to the hippocampus Marked by: 1. Dementia: loss of cognitive function 2. Memory loss in retrograde fashion: loss of recent memory before distant memory 4. Neurofibrillary tangles 5. B-amyloid plaques: incorrectly folded copies of the amyloid precursor protein Sundowning: increased dysfunction in late afternoon and evening 3. Atrophy of the brain

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Korsakoff's syndrome

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Memory loss caused bun thiamine deficiency in the brain Marked by: 1. Retrograde amnesia: the loss of previously formed memories 2. Anterograde amnesia: the inability to form new memories 3. Confabulation: the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of vivid memories

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Agnosia

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The loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds though usually one of three Caused by physical damage to the brain: stroke of neuro disorder like multiple sclerosis

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Decay

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Memory loss that occurs naturally over time as the neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades Curve of forgetting - for a day or two after learning the list, recall fell sharply but then leveled off

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Interference

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common reason for memory loss, a retrieval error caused by the existence of other similar information Two types: 1. Proactive interference 2. retroactive interference

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Proactive interference

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Old information is interfering with new learning Ex: moving addresses and having a hard time remember new address because you're used to old address

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Retroactive interference

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New information causes forgetting of old information Ex: when teachers forget the names of students front previous years as they learn new current students names Why it may be better to study an hour before sleep -- reduces number of interfering events

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Aging and memory

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Aging does not necessarily lead to memory loss -- larger range of memory ability for 70 year olds than 20 Some trends in memory in older individuals: 1. People in their 70s tend to say the most vivid memories occurred in teens and 20s -- peak period for encoding 2. Recognition or skill-based memory don't show degeneration with age 3. Semantically meaningful material can be easily learned and recalled in older individuals -- larger semantic network than younger people 4. Prospective memory is intact when it is event-based but not time-based

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Prospective memory

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Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future 1. Event based: remembering to do something when it is primed by a trigger event 2. Time-based: remembering to do something at a specific time everyday

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Confabulation

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Example of false memory, in which we fill in gaps in our memories

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Misinformation effect

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When given misinformation, people may recall details of it as if it actually happened Also may alter the descriptions of severity of the event

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Source amnesia

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Confusion between semantic and episodic memory (factual and events experienced), person remembers details but confuses the context under which those details were gained Ex: person hears a story of something that happened to someone else and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself

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Neuro plasticity

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Ability for brain to change; during development, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli Ability for brain to reorganize drastically Best during development, worsens with age

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Synaptic pruning

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Ability for brain to change by breaking weak neural connections and bolstering strong ones to increase efficiency of our brain's ability to process information

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Memory trace, short term

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NTs stimulate neuronal activity and leave behind a memory trace that is the cause of STM If stimulus isn't repeated or rehearsed, trace disappears

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Long-term potentiation

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When stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing NTs and receptor density increases (more receptor sites) 1. More NTs released by presynaptic neurons 2. More receptors on post synaptic neurons Basis of long term memory

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