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The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

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science of human development

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A way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data-based conclusions.

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scientific method

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A specific prediction that can be tested.

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hypothesis

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Evidence based on data from scientific observation or experiments; not theoretical.

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empirical evidence

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The repetition of a study, using different participants.

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replication

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A general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception.

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nature

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A general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived.

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nurture

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A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen.

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critical period

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A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. For example, early childhood is considered a _____ ______ for language learning.

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sensitive period

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The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard.

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difference-equals-deficit error

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An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.

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life-span perspective

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The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life. (Later renamed bioecological theory).

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ecological-systems approach

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A group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born at about the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts.

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cohort

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A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called social class.)

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socioeconomic status

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People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion

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ethnic group

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A group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the basis of appearance, typically skin color.

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race

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An idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms, such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are ______ _______.

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social construction

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A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions.

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culture

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Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance.

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epigenetic

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Cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had actually performed that action.

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mirror neurons

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A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A _______ ________ provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.

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developmental theory

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A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.

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psychoanalytic theory

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A theory of human development that studies observable behavior. ______ is also called learning theory, because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

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behaviorism

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According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word _____ is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete ______ his or her body to perform well by training for a long time.

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conditioning

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A learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) gradually comes to be connected with a neutral stimulus (such as a particular sound) that had no special meaning before the learning process began. (Also called respondent conditioning.)

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classical conditioning

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The learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning.)

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operant conditioning

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A technique for conditioning behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person.

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reinforcement

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An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. The theory's basic principle is that even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people.

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social learning theory

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A theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

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cognitive theory

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A theory that stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

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humanism

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A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society.

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dynamic-systems theory

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A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society.

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differential-systems approach

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A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner—in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data.

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scientific observation

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A research method in which the researcher tries to determine the causeand- effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one (called the independent variable) and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the other (called the dependent variable).

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experiment

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In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. (Also called experimental variable.)

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independent variable

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In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds.

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dependent variable

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A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means

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survey

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An in-depth study of one person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow-up discussions, tests, questionnaires, and so on.

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case study

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A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics.

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cross-sectional research

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A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

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longitudinal research

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A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a crosssectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called cohortsequential research or time-sequential research.)

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cross-sequential research

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A number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A _______ indicates only that two variables are related, not that one variable causes the other to occur.

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correlation

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Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales.

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quantitative research

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Research that considers qualities instead of quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of ______ studies.

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qualitative research

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The molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins.

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more or fewer _______.

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chromosome

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A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or an ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a _____ from the other sex to form a zygote

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gamete

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The single cell that is formed from the fusing of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum.

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zygote

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A section of a chromosome and the basic unit for the transmission of heredity, consisting of a string of chemicals that are instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins.

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gene

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An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.

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genotype

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The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.

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phenotype

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Any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur.

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allele

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The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.

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genome

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Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (Also called identical twins.)

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monozygotic twins

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Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. (Also called fraternal twins.)

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dizygotic twins

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A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of two X-shaped chromosomes, one each from the mother and the father. X __- zygotes become females.

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XX

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A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of an X-shaped chromosome from the mother and a Y-shaped chromosome from the father. X __- zygotes become males.

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XY

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The surprising discovery that, although low SES usually correlates with poor health, this is not true for _____ in the United States. For example, when compared with the U.S. average LWB rate, _____ newborns are less often of low birthweight.

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Hispanic paradox

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A gene that adds something to some aspect of the phenotype. Its contribution depends on additions from the other genes, which may come from either the same or the other parent

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additive gene

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The interaction of a pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reveals the influence of one allele (the ____ gene) more than that of the other (the _____ gene).

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dominant-recessive pattern

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A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. Such an unexpressed gene occurs in half the _____ gametes and thus is passed on to half the _____ children, who will most likely be _____, too. Generally, the characteristic appears in the phenotype only when such a gene is inherited from both parents.

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carrier

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A gene carried on the X chromosome. If a male inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mother, he expressed that trait because the Y from his father has no counteracting gene. Females are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to express them.

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X-linked

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The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

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germinal period

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The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop.

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embryonic period

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The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus grows in size and matures in functioning.

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fetal period

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Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form.

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stem cells

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The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop.

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implantation

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The name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception.

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embryo

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The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.

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fetus

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An image of an unborn fetus (or an internal organ) produced by scanning it with high-frequency sound waves. (Also called sonogram.)

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ultrasound

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The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus may survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.

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age of viability

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A quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning. The baby's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflexes are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice—at one minute and five minutes after birth—and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the ideal score of 10 (which is rarely attained).

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Apgar scale

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A surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina.

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cesarean section (c-section)

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A woman who helps with the birth process. ____ are trained to offer support to new mothers, including massage and suggestions for breastfeeding positions.

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doula

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A test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes.

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Brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS)

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An unlearned, involuntary action of movement in response to a stimulus. A ____ occurs without conscious thought.

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reflex

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Symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers.

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couvade

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The sadness and inadequacy felt by some new mothers in the days and weeks after giving birth.

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postpartum depression

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The strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn.

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parent-infant bond

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A child-care technique in which the mother of a low-birthweight infant holds the baby between her breasts, like a ______ that carries her immature newborn in a pouch on her abdomen.

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kangaroo care

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A condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with three rather than two chromosomes at the 21st position. People with _____ _____ typically have distinctive characteristics, including unusual facial features (thick tongue, round face, slanted eyes), heart abnormalities, and language difficulties. (Also called trisomy-21.)

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Down syndrome

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Agents and conditions, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death.

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teratogen

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Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.

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behavioral teratogen

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A disorder that results from damage to the brains motor centers. People with _____ _____ have difficulty with muscle control, so their speech and/or body movements are impaired.

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cerebral palsy

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A lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death.

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anoxia

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A situation in which a certain teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level.

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threshold effect

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A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and retarded mental development, that may occur in the child of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant.

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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A body weight at birth of less than 51⁄2 pounds (2,500 grams).

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low birthweight (LBW)

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A body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1,500 grams).

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very low birthweight (VLBW)

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A body weight at birth of less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces (1,000 grams).

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extremely low birthweight (ELBW)

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A birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy have elapsed—that is, at 35 or fewer weeks after conception.

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preterm birth

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Having a body weight at birth that is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. For example, a 5-pound (2,265-gram) newborn is considered ____ if born on time but not _____ if born two months early. (Also called small-for-dates.)

answer

small for gestational age (SGA)

Invitation to the Life Span (Chapter 1-2) – Flashcards

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