hist/systems 9-14 – Flashcards
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- his emphasis on how a priori perceptual and cognitive categories shape our experiences (Gestalt: "There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole. It is the hope of Gestalt theory to determine the nature of such wholes")
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- How were the gestaltists influenced by Kant?
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- emphasized how overall fields of force determined the nature of the relationships among components of the field (cannot understand by analyzing each of the elements within the total field, must look at the overall pattern of interrelations among elements)
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- What effect did field theory in physics have on gestalt psychology?
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- important thing about studying the mind was not to examine its contents, or even to understand the underlying physiology, but to understand how the mind operates to create our experiences. Act psychology- emphasizes the mind as an active entity- the important thing is the act of perceiving, how the individual perceives the event, and what the act means to the individual.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Discuss Brentano's views on psychology and act psychology. How did he influence the gestaltists?
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a. Who was Carl Stumpf? - stumpf was a noted experimentalist who contributed important work on the auditory perception of tones. b. What relationship did he have with the founding members of gestalt psychology? - Two of the three original gestaltists took their doctorates with him and one studied with him for a time. ... he protested reductionism, emphasized the holistic nature of experience and researched emotion, the mental life of children, and perception of space. c. What's the story of Clever Hans? - Clever Hans: a horse that was said to be able to do math and other intellectual tricks. Trainer was accidently giving cues to the horse to make him do so. (observer expectancy effect: a researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. Who was Carl Stumpf? b. What relationship did he have with the founding members of gestalt psychology? c. What's the story of Clever Hans?
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a. What did Wartheimer call "apparent motion?" - in a darkened room, two adjeacent small circles are flashed on and off in sequence. If the interval between the flashing of the two lights is just right the perception is not of the two lights flashing on and off but of a single light that moves from side to side- thus, two separate sensory events occur, but the perception is that of a single continuous event. In the space between the lights, the circle is perceived even though there is no sensory basis for this perception. (perceived motion referred to as "phi phenomenon", disliked apparent motion because it implied that the motion was not really perceived.) b. How did he study this in the laboratory? - 3 lights in a straight line, a and c flashed on and off simultaneously then b was flashed after 60 msec, the perception was that two lights had moved at the same time to the center point. c. How did his findings go against Wundt's theory? - he found that we perceive whole, meaningful features, not elements that somehow combine to form wholes- the whole is different from the sum of its parts and the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole- attack elementism.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. What did Wartheimer call "apparent motion?" b. How did he study this in the laboratory? c. How did his findings go against Wundt's theory?
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a. Describe Max Werthiemer's academic background. - studied law then philosophy then with stumf then completed Ph.D. with Kulpe b. Where was Werthiemer teaching before he came to America? - Frankfurt c. Why did he immigrate to America? - Nazis made it impossible for Jewish people to teach in Germany d. What was his idea of productive thinking. Explain the example of finding the area of a rectangle. - shouldn't be taught plain memorization, rather should be taught insight into the concepts behind the symbols. Area of a rectangle is area of two squares understand area and understand how to find it
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. Describe Max Werthiemer's academic background. b. Where was Werthiemer teaching before he came to America? c. Why did he immigrate to America? d. What was his idea of productive thinking. Explain the example of finding the area of a rectangle.
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a. Describe Kurt Koffka's academic background. - educated in Berlin, one year at Edinburgh, Ph.D. from Stumf at Berlin, researched color contrast and auditory rhythm b. What were some of his contributions to gestalt psychology? - wrote an article on Gestalt psych, spread word of it in person at campus tours and meetings of the APA c. What article did he publish in the United States and why was it significant? What about the title possibly mislead American psychologists? -"Perception: An Introduction to Gestalt-Theorie": significant because it introduced Gestalt psych, but the title implied that it was merely a new approach to the study of perception d. Where did he go after leaving Germany. - emigrated to the US, Cornell, Wisconsin, then smith women's college in MA
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. Describe Kurt Koffka's academic background. b. What were some of his contributions to gestalt psychology? c. What article did he publish in the United States and why was it significant? What about the title possibly mislead American psychologists? d. Where did he go after leaving Germany.
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a. Describe Wolfgang Kohler's academic background. - doctorate from Stumf, then Shumann's assistant b. What contributions did he make to gestalt psychology. - researcher, writer, and spokesperson for Gestalt psychology c. Discuss his research on Tenerife in WW I. What significant findings for learning did he write about? Was he a spy for Germany? - numerous studies of insight in primates. Found that the notion of insight challenges behavioral perspectives on learning... Maybe a spy, but just circumstantial evidence that suggested he was contributing to the German war effort d. Why did he leave Germany in WW II, he wasn't Jewish? - appalled by the nazi destruction of academia and spoke publicly about it.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. Describe Wolfgang Kohler's academic background. b. What contributions did he make to gestalt psychology. c. Discuss his research on Tenerife in WW I. What significant findings for learning did he write about? Was he a spy for Germany? d. Why did he leave Germany in WW II, he wasn't Jewish?
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a. figure-ground- one of our most basic perceptual tendencies, to separate whole figures from their backgrounds (the border of the figure belongs to the figure, while the ground extends behind it)
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Explain and illustrate the principles of perceptual organization: a. figure-ground-
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b. proximity- a tendency to perceive that objects in close proximity "belong" together
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Explain and illustrate the principles of perceptual organization: b. proximity-
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c. similarity- a tendency to perceive that objects resembling each other "belong" together
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c9- c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY-
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d. good continuation- a tendency to organize perceptions in s a smoothly flowing direction
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Explain and illustrate the principles of perceptual organization: d. good continuation-
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e. closure- a tendency to fill in missing gaps in our perception in order to perceive whole figures
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Explain and illustrate the principles of perceptual organization: e. closure-
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f. Pragnanz- (what all of the organizing principles have in common), means "good figure", a tendency for our perceptions to mirror reality as closely as possible
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Explain and illustrate the principles of perceptual organization: f. Pragnanz-
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- geographical environment: the world as it is. Behavioral environment: the world as we perceive it.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Distinguish between the gestaltists' ideas of geographical environment and behavioral environment.
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- the idea that perceptual experience and underlying physiological events are functionally equivalent. Map: the actual terrain over a twenty square mile area looks nothing like the map of the area and represents a different kind of experience altogether, but the map is structurally isomorphic to the terrain.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- How is the concept of isomorphism like a map?
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a. How is insight different from trial-and-error learning? - insight: solutions to problems occur when individuals can view the entire problem field and rearrange the elements of the problem into a new configuration, solutions have a perceptual quality and occur quickly once the components have been reconfigured.. trial-and-error: a process of trial and accidental success in which unsuccessful behaviors gradually are eliminated in favor of behaviors that work. b. Whose work on learning did Kohler criticize and on what grounds? - Thorndike's because the animals could never perceive the entire filed and thus were unable to see how the components of the apparatus related to each other in an overall configuration
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. How is insight different from trial-and-error learning? b. Kohler criticize and on what grounds?
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- we have better memory for stimuli that stand apart from the rest
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Explain the Von Restorff effect.
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- an inability to think beyond the typical function of an object. Tumor problem- asked subjects how to destroy an inoperable stomach tumor using radiation but the radiation needed to kill the tumor would kill the surrounding tissue, was a solution but barely any could find it.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- What was Duncker's idea of functional fixedness?
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a. What was Kurt Lewin's academic background? - first medicine and biology, then ph.d. from stumf b. Why did he leave Germany? - his status as a war hero was not enough to overcome his Jewish heritage
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. What was Kurt Lewin's academic background? b. Why did he leave Germany?
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a. What was Lewin's field theory and what was its connection to your life space? - field theory: understanding a person's behavior requires knowing about al the forces acting on a person at a given moment, the particular field in which we operate is our life space, which produces these forces (needs goals beliefs- personal factors... and environmental factors are external to person but directly affect them) b. What is topology and how did Lewin use it in his theories? - a non-quantitative spatial geometry- he used it to symbolize the life space concept c. Give an example of a life space "egg" and discuss equilibrium, valence, and vector. - life space includes everything within the egg (the person and the environment perceived), outside of the egg is the foreign hull which holds all the events circumstances and stimuli that are having no effect on the person at that time. Equilibrium: when all needs are satisfied. Valence: to have positive valence is to be desired which creates a tension in the life space. Vector: an arrow which symbolizes the push that is directed toward a specific desired goal, an approach tendency, or away from a goal to be avoided or an avoidance tendency (the arrow's length is proportional to the strength of the need).
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- a. What was Lewin's field theory and what was its connection to your life space? b. What is topology and how did Lewin use it in his theories? c. Give an example of a life space "egg" and discuss equilibrium, valence, and vector.
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a. approach-approach conflict: - two desirable goals of equal strength from which to choose (steak or lobster?) b. approach-avoidance conflict: - simultaneous approach and avoidance tendencies with reference to a single goal (hot fudge sundae is delicious but bad for us) c. avoidance-avoidance conflict: - two equally undesirable goals (study one of two boring topics)
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Lewin is known for the following three concepts. Explain each and give an example: a. approach-approach conflict- b. approach-avoidance conflict- c. avoidance-avoidance conflict-
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- memory is better for incomplete rather than complete tasks (waiter remembered orders but then not who had what at the end. While unpaid the waiters' life space had a tension to it, once paid the tension resolved and closure is achieved-- equilibrium)
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- What is the Zeigarnik effect?
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- differentiation- a developmental process in which a child's life space becomes more complex (girl knew that stopping her focus on the rock was part of the solution of being able to sit on it, look away to sit down) - dedifferentiation- a process that occurs under stress, in which a person reverses the normal differentiation process and reverts to an earlier, more primitive way of behavior (kids could play with any toys on either side, then a mesh wall came down and they couldn't, before didn't care because had the option, now destructive distracted ad upset)
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- How does differentiation change life space according to Lewin? What is dedifferentiation?
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- consequences of different leadership styles, different environments, making crafts, authoritarian (submissive no initiative, poor products no interest) democratic (cohesive task oriented high quality) or laissez-faire (confused frustrated nothing accomplished), got all three and behavior was influenced by how they were guided.
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- Discuss Lewin's leadership study with 10-year old boys and his findings.
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- using science as a means to bring about productive social change
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c9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- What is action research?
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Positive knowledge was said to be the result of objective observations using the systematic methods of science, to be made by unbiased (i.e. machinelike) observers. Metaphysical speculation about the fundamental nature of events (including behavioral ones) in the universe was considered to be a worthless exercise, according to the positivists, because such speculations could never be verified objectively. Positivists also valued practical knowledge, believing that an intimate connection existed between understanding nature and controlling it. Positivism is the philosophical position associated with Comte, who argues that the only certain knowledge is obtained through objective, publicly observable events. This is in direct opposition with structuralists who focused on identifying the structural elements of human conscious experience through laboratory and introspective methods, and functionalism, which studied the adaptive value of various mental and behavioral processes. (influenced by the newly popular use of animals because they cannot introspect and therefore studying the relationship between human and animal consciousness required the creation of objective, behavioral measures.)
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What is positivism? How does this differ from methods used by the structuralists and the functionalists?
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He was born into relative poverty to a religious family who worked as peasant farmers to feed their large family, Pavlov was the first of 11 children (6 died in childhood). Schooled for going into clerical work but was interested in science due to two books (Darwin's Origin of Species and Sechnov's (physiologist) Reflexes of the Brain). After this he left the seminary to study physiology in Russia's capital city and got a degree in medicine before becoming a research physiologist. He spent years studying and researching, had financial hardships, then became the first director of the physiology division in St. Petersburg's Institute of Experimental Medicine where he began to systematically study the physiology of the digestive system (Nobel Prize for this).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What is Ivan Pavlov's background?
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Darwin's Origin of Species and Sechnov's (physiologist) Reflexes of the Brain.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What two books were a great inspiration to Pavlov?
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In Sechnov's "Reflexes of the Brain", it was argued that all cortical processes involved complex relationships between excitatory and inhibitory processes in the nervous system and that psychological events could be reduced to and explained by "reflex action in the cortex". It was a model very much in tune with the mechanistic and materialistic climate of 19th-century science, and became the cornerstone of Pavlov's model of nervous system functioning.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What is "reflex action in the cortex?"
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It was created by segregating a small section of stomach (1/10), and redesigning it as a miniature stomach. It was situated so that food could not enter when it reached the stomach from the esophagus. A small tube led from the pouch to the exterior, thereby providing a means to collect the fluids secreted by the mini-stomach. Uncontaminated by food, these fluids could be measured accurately.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Describe Pavlov's pouch.
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Psychic secretions were a way to study the reflexes of the brain. After studying salivary responses for a while, dogs began to salivate before food would reach their mouths. This phenomenon was studied and came to be called "psychic secretions". They were a nuisance to the study because they reduced the accuracy of Pavlov's attempts to measure an exact amount of saliva in response to a specific amount of a certain type of food. On the other hand, the animal's behavior was predictable, and intrigued Pavlov because they suggested an objective way to study those "reflexes of the brain" as Sechenov wrote about. Whereas other scientists may have tried to control them to focus on the problem at hand, Pavlov examined them directly and it became his life's work.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What did Pavlov consider psychic secretions? How did Pavlov think they might help support Sechnov's ideas?
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Although the building was prestigious within Russia, it was not impressive to an international visitor. It was described as a "small and dirty mere hovel". Although its budget was fairly large, Pavlov raised additional money for it by selling gastric juices as an elixir for those suffering from digestive ailments. Eventually he was able to turn his laboratory into a world-class research environment with an especially antiseptic environment for his surgical procedures, which drastically reduced infection and ensured the survival of all animals in his care. The Tower of Silence was built specially for Pavlov's conditioning research and featured extensive soundproofing techniques to ensure that the dogs would respond only to the stimulus being studied at the time and not to any extraneous stimuli. There were eight experimental chambers, four on each of two floors that were separated by an intermediate floor. Each research chamber was fully insulated and separated by other chambers by a corridor. To further reduce noise and vibration, the building itself was supported by beams immersed in sand and surrounded by a sand and straw filled moat. Experimenters were separated from the dogs by a double wall.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Describe Pavlov's laboratory. What was the Tower of Silence?
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When Russia was immersed in civil war and conditions were generally chaotic, the soviets saw to it that Pavlov's research continued with full support. For example, it was officially decreed that a special committee be formed "to create as soon as possible the most favorable conditions for safeguarding the scientific work of Academician Pavlov and his collaborators". They were so enamored of him because a major theme of his research was that behavior could be changed by controlling the environment- actions could be "conditioned". That, of course, was exactly what the soviets hoped to do on a broad scale. The essence of their "great social experiment" was to bring about changes in behavior to accomplish the ideal that each should produce according to their ability and receive according to their needs.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What did Pavlov get so much support from the government for his work?
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He developed a systematic method to train the dozens of research assistants who passed through his lab by asking them to rework an already finished lab, allowing them to learn proper procedure without the pressure to produce new findings. This allowed an ongoing program of replication because once the earlier research had been replicated successfully, the worker would be given a new problem to investigate. A failure to replicate would trigger additional research (by yet a third worker) to clear up the contradiction. Replication is a cornerstone of sound scientific research; results that cannot be repeated are of no value.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What process did Pavlov use to replicate his studies?
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He felt that classical conditioning research had to be viewed from a physiological rather than a psychological standpoint. Pavlov believed that restricting the investigation to specific external stimuli and measurable physiological responses was the only scientifically defensible strategy to use. The "psychological approach," on the other hand, implied a dualism of mental and physical processes that Pavlov was not willing to accept.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What was Pavlov's idea about psychology?
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Classical conditioning involves the pairing of a stimulus known to produce a particular response (i.e. salvation) with a neutral stimulus, such as a tone. During acquisition, then, the starting point is an already existing reflex. This reflex is an unconditioned reflex (UCR) of salivating when food (the unconditioned stimulus, or UCS) is presented to the animal. Conditioning involved presenting a neutral stimulus, and then the UCS. This neutral stimulus Pavlov called a conditioned stimulus (CS), because the resulting reflex depended on (was "conditional" on) the CS-UCS pairing. This resulting reflex was called a conditioned reflex (CR).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain what is now called classical conditioning using the terms unconditioned reflex, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned reflex, and conditioned stimulus. Give an example to illustrate the process.
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A controlled reflex (CR) can undergo extinction if the CS appears without the UCS. For example, if the sound (CS) appeared without being accompanied by the food (UCS). Pavlov let the metronome run for 30-second intervals every two minutes, recording the amount of saliva secreted and what he called the "latent period"- the amount of time between the starting of the metronome and the beginning of salvation. As Pavlov described it, the "weakening of the reflex to a conditional stimulus (which is repeated a certain number of times without reinforcement) may appropriately be termed experimental extinction of conditioned reflexes."
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What is extinction in classical conditioning and how do you induce it?
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Generalization is in evidence when a response conditioned to stimulus A also occurs, to some degree, in response to stimuli that are similar to stimulus A. So if the CS of a 60 cps tone produces eight drops of saliva, the animal will also respond to a 70 cps tone, perhaps with six drops. A generalization gradient also exists- the amount of saliva secreted is proportional to the similarity of the CS and the tested stimulus. Differentiation (discrimination) results from pairing the 60 cps tone with food, while presenting the 70 cps tone without the food. Eventually the dog only salivates to the 60 cps tone.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain, with examples, the processes of generalization and discrimination.
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A breakdown in differentiation can produce experimental neurosis, or, an emotional response that occurs after training a discrimination between two stimuli, then making the stimuli too similar to be discriminated. Pavlov projected a circle onto a screen in from of dogs and paired its presentation with food. Soon, the circle became a normal CS for the CR of salivation. After creating this conditioned reflex, Pavlov then trained the dog to make an easy differentiation between the circle and an ellipse that had a 4:3 ratio. He then changed the shape of the ellipse to make it look more and more like a circle. At first the dog could discriminate between the two, but then could not and eventually its behavior reached the point where it even had some difficulty distinguishing an easy 2:1 ellipse from the circle. For Pavlov, then, neurotic behavior meant a breakdown in the ability to make normal differentiations.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What is experimental neurosis and how did Pavlov induce it in his dogs?
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The neurosis also manifested itself in the behavior of the dogs, and generally excitable dogs squealed and bit at the equipment, while placid dogs became even more withdrawn. He saw these outcomes in terms of excitatory and inhibitory cortical processes and believed that the individual differences in temperament related to whether excitatory or inhibitory processes were more dominant in them.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- How did Pavlov see temperament relating to the neurosis? How did this support Sechnov's ideas?
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He was awarded for his long years of painstaking and ingenious investigations of the physiology of digestion. In particular, he was known for inventing or perfecting a number of surgical techniques that facilitated this research. The research involved isolating various parts of the digestive system and extracting digestive fluids, which he then measured as a function of the type of substance fed to the animal. His research developed several surgical techniques to isolate and collect digestive secretions in dogs that were otherwise functioning normally.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- For what research did Pavlov receive the Nobel Prize?
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He was not popular at first because Americans were more interested in studying the human conscious experience than animal behavior. Beginning in the 1920s, much of his work was translated to English for the first time. He also visited the US twice for a conference and lecture series, and again at Yale for the Ninth International Congress of Psychology, where he gave one of the major addresses- an impassioned description of his research on conditioning to a large audience of American and international psychologists. It was said that he spellbound the audience and had a standing ovation with bows of appreciation for the Guest of Honor of the Congress.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- When did Pavlov's work have a wider spread in America and why so late?
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He entered Furman University at age 16 and graduated with a master's degree. His mother died during his final year there and freed him from obligation to join the ministry. Instead, being influenced by a professor at Furman, he studied philosophy and psychology at the University of Chicago, where they coexisted in the philosophy department. He didn't like philosophy or introspective psychology (had no talent for introspection), but was comfortable with the general precepts of a functionalist psychology and loved comparative psychology (loved animals from growing up on a farm).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What is John Watson's educational background?
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a. Who did he work with at University of Chicago after he graduated? - Harvey Carr b. What area of psychology did Watson seem most interested in studying? - From growing up on a farm, he loved animals and thus comparative psychology. He once said, "can't I find out by watching their behavior everything that the other students are finding out by using human subjects?" c. How did Watson and Carr determine how a rat finds its way through a maze? - Watson removed specific senses from each group (eyes, ears, nose), but they still learned. They then removed whiskers and anesthetized rats' feet. By a literal process of elimination, they concluded that the animals were learning to associate sequences of muscle movements with the various turns in the maze. In essence, they learned to take ten steps, then turn right for another five steps, then turn left, and so on. d. Explain the significance of the study that lengthened or shortened the maze. - Provided direct evidence for their hypothesis about the kinesthetic sense. By shortening or lengthening the mazes that they already learned, they could see that rats ran into the walls of the shortened maze, and tried to turn at the originally correct spot while in lengthened mazes. This worked as a model of scientific research, arriving at an empirical conclusion by first eliminating one alternative hypothesis after another, then producing a direct demonstration of the viability of the remaining (kinesthetic) hypothesis.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- a. Who did he work with at University of Chicago after he graduated? b. What area of psychology did Watson seem most interested in studying? c. How did Watson and Carr determine how a rat finds its way through a maze? d. Explain the significance of the study that lengthened or shortened the maze.
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He was already seen as an up-and-coming star in the world of experimental psychology, and was underappreciated with the low ranking of instructor after five years at Chicago. He was offered a full professor position and control of a lab at Johns Hopkins, then, when James Baldwin was fired for being arrested during a police raid on a whore house, he was given his position of head of psychology.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- How did Watson end up the head of psychology at Johns Hopkins at such a young age?
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In 1913, Watson accepted an invitation to speak at Columbia and felt he had sufficient stature to proclaim what he had believed for at least ten years- that it was time for the field to move away from an introspective psychology that studied consciousness and toward the psychology of behavior. It was titled "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It".
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- When did Watson write his behaviorist manifesto? What was its proper name?
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He wanted psychology to be a natural science, and introspective speculations could never be verified objectively; the only certain knowledge is obtained through objective, publicly observable events. Furthermore, a failure to replicate some introspective result would be blamed on the inadequate training of introspectors (he doubted that any one psychologist could define a sensation in a way that would be agreed on by psychologists trained differently). He also thought it was time that psychology must discard all reference to consciousness and turn to behavior as the data to be observed. This is in direct opposition with structuralists who focused on identifying the structural elements of human conscious experience through laboratory and introspective methods, and functionalism, which studied the adaptive value of various mental and behavioral processes. "Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective natural science. It's theoretical goal is the prediction of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its method. The behaviorist, in his attempts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute".
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What points did Watson make in the behaviorist manifesto that stood behaviorism apart from structuralism and functionalism?
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Positive knowledge was said to be the result of objective observations using the systematic methods of science, to be made by unbiased (i.e. machinelike) observers. Metaphysical speculation about the fundamental nature of events (including behavioral ones) in the universe was considered to be a worthless exercise, according to the positivists, because such speculations could never be verified objectively. Rather, it argues that the only certain knowledge is obtained through objective, publicly observable events.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Why would we say Watson is a positivist?
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Even such an activity as thinking can be reduced to stimuli and response. Thinking is in essence nothing more than sub vocal speech, and the subject of this thinking would be determined by habits referred to as "laryngeal habits". He argued that as children, we talk to ourselves "out loud" but as we get older the talk eventually becomes silent. Thinking, then, might involve central (i.e. brain) processes, but it also manifests itself in peripheral actions that can be measured. Hence, even something as apparently non-behavioral as thinking can in fact be measured as behavior. Several studies were attempted to measure the behavioral manifestations of thinking by attaching a device for recording vibrations to a subject's neck in the region of the larynx, and then asking the subject to read silently do a math problem to themselves, or recall a poem (assuming that there would be a correlation between laryngeal movements and thinking).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- How did Watson explain thought as a behavior?
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Most say this due to his manifesto, but the immediate effect of the manifesto was that most psychologists ignored it or saw it as another attack on introspection. Only two psychologists responded in print to it, and both were highly critical. Also, his APA presidency happened BEFORE his manifesto, and was likely the outcome of his already-existing status among his peers, his friendship with influential APA members, his position as chair at JH, and his editorship of Psychological Review.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain why your textbook author says Watson's behaviorism did not take over psychology immediately as some writers have implied.
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Feeling pressure to maintain institutional support for basic research in animal behavior, he tried to research a topic with practical value. With JJB Morgan, they conducted a series of studies investigating reflexes, basic emotional responses, and conditioned emotional responses. They set out to identify the fundamental human emotional responses and the stimuli producing them. They identified three: fear, rage, and love. Fear was shown after loud noises or being dropped in the form of sudden catching of breath, clutching hands randomly, blinking their eyes puckering their lips then crying. Rage resulted from being too tightly wrapped and was shown through screaming slashing or striking movements of the hands and arms. Love resulted from gently stroking or tickling them and was seen in gurgling, cooing and smiling.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Describe Watson's study with infants to determine what emotions they could be made to show. What were these emotions?
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From his infant research he concluded that only a few stimuli would elicit the three instinctive emotions, thus conditioning must be accountable for the emotional responses to other stimuli. He attempted to demonstrate this by taking the stolid, stable, and unemotional Little Albert and tested to see if he showed fear when presented with a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, and a monkey, with masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers, etc. Unlike other infants he wasn't afraid of the stimulus of loss of support, but he was afraid of loud noises. Using that stimulus, by striking a metal bar with a hammer, to produce fear- they paired it with the presentation of the white rat. As he reached out to touch the rat they made the noise the first time and he jumped and fell forward. Just as he touched the rat the bar was struck again. He jumped, fell forward and whimpered. Next they took a week break to save him from being too disturbed. Then he experienced, in succession, the rat, three trials of the rat combined with the loud noise, the rat alone, two more joint stimulations, and the rat alone again. On the last trial he began to cry as soon as the rat was shown, turned sharply and crawled rapidly away (and almost off the table).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- Describe the Little Albert Study.
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It did probably permanent harm to him, he was too young to consent to the study, didn't know what the effects of the study would be. Never alleviated his fear after the study (not enough time before he was taken from the hospital, but knew when he would be leaving so should have put that as the priority).
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c10- What are the ethical issues we now have with the little albert study?
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There were elements of operant punishment involved at least on the first two trials. The baby's behavior of reaching for the rat resulted in the immediate consequence of the loud noise. There is some question about whether the initial procedure actually produced a strong fear of animals; films show that he was hesitant about them even before testing began, and even after testing he seems concerned but not panicked. Also, during the start of generalization, his reactions were so weak that they had to be refreshed with additional pairings of the animals with the loud noise. Lastly, it is inappropriate to draw a general conclusion about fear conditioning on the basis of a study using a single baby.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What are the methodological problems with the little albert study that do not make it a clear supporting case for conditioning emotions in Albert?
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a. What are alternative explanations for some of the results that are in the paper about Albert? - He may have been afraid of the experimenter- when Watson put his head down for him to play with his hair he refused, but he played with the hair of others who did the same. b. What happened to Albert? - When he came back a month later he was not as fearful of the rat. c. Who co-authored the paper with Watson? - Rosalie Rayner, a graduate student at JH (whom he got fired for having an affair with).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- a. What are alternative explanations for some of the results that are in the paper about Albert? b. What happened to Albert? c. Who co-authored the paper with Watson?
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a. Who was Mary Cover Jones? -A young Columbian graduate student and friend of Rayner; Watson supervised her research as she worked with several children who feared various objects. b. Describe her study with Peter. - She tried a number of methods but most were unsuccessful. Fears were not reduced by the passage of time, verbal appeal, or by having peers ridicule the child. As suggested in the Watson and Rayner paper, she tried systematic desensitization and reduced the boy's fear of rabbits by placing the animal at some distance from the boy while he ate, then gradually moved it closer. The pleasurable responses associated with eating apparently replaced the fear response associated with the rabbit. c. What behavior therapy technique do we credit Jones with developing? -Systematic desensitization.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- a. Who was Mary Cover Jones? b. Describe her study with Peter. c. What behavior therapy technique do we credit Jones with developing?
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He had an affair with his student Rosalie Rayner, and moved on to a successful career in advertising.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What happened that Watson had to leave Johns Hopkins? What was his next career move?
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Articles in popular magazines with titles like "The New Science of Animal Behavior", the books Behaviorism and Psychological Care of Infant and Child.
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- What did Watson publish after he left academics for a business career?
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Watson deserves the title of "founder" because he was such a vigorous promoter. He initiated the eventual shift to behaviorism and stressed the importance of application, bridging the gap between basic and applied psychology. (which struck a chord with the American ideal that through proper child rearing and education, people could aspire to any goal).
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c10 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIORISM- How does your textbook author evaluate Watson's contributions to psychology?
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Readers of his 'behaviorist manifesto' responded with indifference, criticism, or "here's another critique of introspection", and simply went about their business.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Why does your book say Watson's behaviorist ideas may not have been "revolutionary?"
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Logical positivism is the philosophical movement associated with the Vienna Circle that extended positivist thinking; distinguished between theoretical and observable events and described ways of connecting the two through operational definitions. Admitted the use of abstract concepts into a scientific theory, as long as these concepts were closely tied to some observable event. For example, if you believe that human behavior can be motivated by the need to reduce a strong drive such as hunger, you are forced to address the question of just what is meant by hunger and how it functions to motivate us to behave. Yet hunger is an unobservable event, limited to an introspective definition like I feel light headed and my stomach is empty.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain the concept of logical positivism. Give an example.
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Operationism is the philosophical position that scientific concepts were to be defined in terms of a set of operations used to measure those concepts. The concept of length for instance would be defined by agreed-upon procedures. "The concept of length is fixed when the operations by which length is measured are fixed." (provided the link for linking unobservable constructs with measurable events [logical positivism]).
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain the concept of operationism.
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Operational definitions are how to define scientific concepts that could not be observed directly. A definition in terms of a specific, observable set of operations (e.g. hunger= 24 hours without food); more generally, defining scientific terms with precision. This enables replication.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Give an example of an operational definition.
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If terms are defined clearly enough, other researchers can repeat a particular study and successful replications produce increased confidence in some research outcome; unsuccessful replications generate additional research to clear up the inconsistency. Furthermore, if researchers using slightly different operational definitions of terms nonetheless produce the same outcome, the generality of the outcome is increased. Thus replication of a study allows you to judge its validity and generality.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Why is replication important in research?
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1930-1960, believed in evolutionary continuum which allowed inferences to humans from animal studies, and learning and conditioning where they stood on the nurture end of the nature/nurture continuum. "Neobehaviorism departs from classic behaviorism in that while the latter is concerned exclusively with observable behaviors, the former acknowledges the importance of also understanding elements that are internal to the individual. Thus, whereas classical behaviorism is only concerned with the environment as a determinant of behavior, neobehaviorism stresses the interaction of the individual and environment."
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What distinguishes neobehaviorism from Watson's behaviorism? What years did it influence American psychology?
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It is one thing to herald the importance of learning; it is quite another to know precisely how such learning comes about. Studies the manner in which learning occurred.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What topic in psychology did neobehaviorists tend to focus on?
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Learned about hard work from his father and a reflective outlook from his mother. Went to MIT but discovered William James and switched to psychology at Harvard. Read Watson's Behavio book and agreed with its critique on introspection, then took a class by Holt who gave him the idea of purposive behaviorism. Taught at Northwestern but was fired for his antiwar stance during WWI. Taught at Berkeley and was offered to start a new class, which brought him back to Watson's textbook and down the behaviorism path.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Give an overview of Edward Tolman's background.
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He believed that behavior could not be meaningfully reduced to simple physical stimuli and muscular or glandular responses but instead that it should be defined as actions that serve some purpose, that is, it is purposive and goal oriented.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Why was Tolman's psychology called purposive behaviorism?
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Believed that the unit of study had to be larger than the "molecular" muscle movements, glandular responses, or neurological responses. In one study, rats were taught to swim through a maze, and then were able to run through it later. Hence what was learned was not simple, they understood the pattern and the response needed to be understood in terms of whole behavior patterns that had meaning beyond the component movements.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What influence did Gestalt psychology have on Tolman's theories?
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Tolman used a molar approach in which broad patterns of behavior were studied (to find their goal).
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain whether Tolman used a molecular or a molar approach to behavior.
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These are hypothetical factors that re not seen directly but are inferred from the manner in which independent and dependent variables are operationally defined. They are assumed to intervene between stimulus and behavior, in such a way as to influence learning. For instance, thirst is an intervening variable. It is never seen directly, but can be inferred to exist as a consequence of creating some stimulus condition (such as not allowing an animal to drink water for 12 hours), or measuring the completion of some behavior that leads to water that is consumed by the animal.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain what Tolman meant by intervening variables.
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When exploring a maze, Tolman believed that rats gradually learned a set of "expectancies" about how the maze was organized. Encountering the maze they would learn that certain cues were associated with certain outcomes (sign gestalt is when there are learned relationships between these cues and the animal's expectations about what would happen if they chose a path). In this experiment, two groups of rats were taught the maze, but the experimental group found bran mash at the end and the control group found sunflower seeds. Over the course of nine days, both groups improved but performance was better for the bran mush. On the tenth day the experimental group got sunflower seeds and their behavior was disrupted because they had come to expect bran mush. When that expectancy was violated, their behavior changed. In short, expectancy is a process intervening between stimulus and response, but is closely tied to the clearly defined stimulus features of the experiment and the observed and easily measured behaviors.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Describe the experiment that supported the theory that expectancies influence behavior (the one with sunflower seeds and bran mush).
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Latent learning attacked the notion that reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur, rather it thought that learning needed to be distinguished from performance and reinforcement affected learning but not performance. Learning the overall layout of the maze occurred more or less automatically whenever the animal was experiencing the maze, even if no food wa to be found in the goal box. Tolman called this latent learning because it occurred below the surface, without being immediately apparent in the animal's performance. To test this it had to be shown that learning occurred even if reinforcement didn't, so Tolman tested three groups of rats in the same maze with 1- no reward 2- always rewards 3- no initial reward, but reward after day 10. If reinforcement was necessary for learning, then no learning would occur on days 1-10 and would start on day 11and gradually improve. Instead, performance improved IMMEDIATELY after day 11 which showed that the maze was being learned the first 10 days even though it wasn't shown in performance. That is, learning was latent and reinforcement was not needed in order for the learning to occur.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain what latent learning is. Describe the experiment that supported the idea of latent learning. (Tolman)
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Tolman did not believe that rats learned stimulus-response connections when learning a maze, rather he argued that they created a cognitive map of the maze- an overall knowledge of the maze's structure and spatial pattern that gave them a general sense of where to go in the maze (reinforcement is not needed). In a study, rats encountered a maze and the "response learning" group always found food by turning to the right, and the "place learning" group always found food in the same place. It was concluded that the place learning group learned faster, a result that is congenial with Tolman's theory that the rats learn a cognitive map rather than a series of responses to specific stimuli. In another study rats quickly learned a maze where no errors could be made, then were given a maze with the path blocked so that they had to choose another route to the food. They chose arms 5 or 6, showing that they knew the general direction of the goal rather than the route most similar to the original (blocked) path.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Describe the concept of cognitive maps. How did Tolman's group show that rats learned where the food was, not the muscle responses it took to get to the food?
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Tolman's research and theorizing commanded attention, his research program helped institutionalize the maze as standard research apparatus, and he was an amazing teacher. However, his research with rats in mazes didn't produce much for practical application and rather served as a good illustration of the dangers of extrapolating too far beyond one's data. There were few "Tolmanians", and he was criticized by contemporaries before becoming popular later with animal cognition research. His lasting importance may come from his attitudes, morals, and values.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Summarize the text author's evaluation of Tolman's contributions.
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Hull gives us an example of how hard work can overcome insurmountable odds such as being born into poverty under pioneer conditions and having typhoid fever and polio (and thus being paralyzed and ruining his mining engineer dream). Went into psychology after regaining some help because he wanted to do theoretical philosophy he could be recognized for. He got his Ph.D. from Wisconsin with his dissertation on concept learning with a preview of learning model featuring gradual increase of habit strength (the shape of the learning curve- performance improved gradually but steadily). He then taught at Wisconsin where he came up with Aptitude Testing (he built a machine to automatically calculate correlations), Hypnosis and Suggestibility (where he concluded that hypnosis was a state of hyper-suggestibility and a reduction in analytical thought, brought on by hypnotically induced relaxation, so the various hypnotic phenomena like pain reduction could be demonstrated in non-hypnotized subjects). After reading the translations of Pavlov's research, he went to Yale to focus on the issue of learning. At this time Yale was becoming a legitimate institution for the study of psychology, whereas before it had not been.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Give an overview of Clark Hull's background.
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The hypothetico-deductive system is a general approach in which hypotheses for research are deduced from the formal postulates of the theory, and the outcomes of research support the theory or lead to its modification. It is called the hypothetico-deductive system because at the core of this type of theory of human behavior is a set of postulates (statements about behavior based on accumulated knowledge from research and logic that are assumed to be true), but cannot be tested directly. From these postulates specific theorems can only be logically deduced (to lead to an experiment which led to a postulate).
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Why was Hull's psychology called the hypothetico-deductive system?
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He rejected Tolman's type; an important intervening variable for him was what he called reaction potential, the probability (potential) that a response (reaction) will occur at a given time. This was influenced by Drive (e.g. hours without food), and habit strength (function of the number of reinforced trials. So the reaction potential was equal to the drive multiplied by the habit strength.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain Hull's concept of intervening variables. How was it different from Tolman's?
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Postulates are statements about behavior based on accumulated knowledge from research and logic that are assumed to be true, but cannot be tested directly. From these postulates specific theorems can only be logically deduced- to lead to an experiment.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Explain what Hull's postulates were.
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By repeatedly reaching a goal, you accumulate habit strength with each reinforced trial. To learn is to increase reaction potential, and learning is incremental (a simple positive growth function) rather than sudden. "any effective habit strength is sensitized into reaction potentiality by all primary drives active within the organism at a given time, the magnitude of this potentiality being a product obtained by multiplying an increasing function of habit strength by an increasing function of drive". Thus, if either drive or habit strength is zero, the response won't occur. (rats will only run a maze correctly if they are motivated- hungry- and have a sufficient number of reinforced trials under their belts.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Why do we say Hull's theory of reaction potential is multiplicative rather than additive?
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Arguably the leading research psychologist in America and most cited. There is now a rapid decline of people citing Hull or his best known collaborator Kenneth Spence. He had an elaborate theory based on overly simple research situations (e.g. straight mazes), and limited practical applications. Furthermore, Hull's theory overlooked the very human nature of research where disputes over the empirical support for the theory would be resolved by dispassionate scientists.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Summarize the text author's evaluation of Hull's contributions.
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Radical behaviorism is a philosophy developed by B. F. Skinner that underlies the experimental analysis of behavior approach to psychology. The term "radical behaviorism" applies to a particular school that emerged during the reign of behaviorism. However, radical behaviorism bears little resemblance to other schools of behaviorism, differing in the acceptance of mediating structures, the role of private events and emotions, and other areas
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Why is B.F. Skinner considered a radical behaviorist?
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Grew up during a time of optimism due to overcoming economic issues (Progressive Era). He was an independent thinker and didn't accept the wisdom of elders unless accompanied by evidence. At college he studied creative writing and met Robert Frost who praised him and made him want to take a year off from school to write. His parents bugged him about his writing and he felt he would never be good enough, which led to his graduate studies in psychology at Harvard where he discovered writing on behaviorism. He found Boring to be boring and Boring removed himself from Skinner's doctoral committee; when Skinner was asked what he thought the shortcomings of behaviorism were, he answered "none". Wrote The Behavior of Organisms, summarizing his 8 years at Harvard. At the annual APA meeting in Boston, he made a plea for his brand of behaviorism and an attack on what he viewed as the misguided efforts of cognitive psychologists; the speech was called "Can Psychology be a Science of the Mind?".
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- Give a brief overview of Skinner's background.
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Operant conditioning is conditioning in which a behavior occurs, and the immediate consequences of the behavior determine its future probability of occurrence. Classical conditioning is conditioning that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that evokes a reflex; the stimulus that evokes the reflex is given whether or not the conditioned response occurs until eventually the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the reflex. In Type S Conditioning (classical conditioning), an identifiable stimulus elicits an identifiable response through the procedure of pairing two stimuli, one that initially elicits the response (e.g. food) and one that doesn't (e.g. a tone). It is called Type "S" because in this case an association is formed between two stimuli (food UCS, and tone CS) with both eventually producing the same response (salvation). Type S conditioning accounts for a certain type of behavior but cannot explain a great deal of behavior that seems to have no easily identifiable stimulus. That is, some behavior is emitted by the organism and is controlled by the immediate consequences of the behavior, not be an eliciting stimulus. In Type R Conditioning (operant conditioning), a behavior is emitted and it followed by some consequence, and the future chances of that behavior occurring are determined by those consequences. If the consequences are negative the behavior is weakened and if it's positive it's strengthened. Skinner called operant conditioning "Type R" because in this case a consequence (e.g. a child getting a toy) is associated with the emitted Response that preceded it (e.g. a child throwing a tantrum in a toy store). Skinner chose the term operant to describe this form of behavior because the behavior "operates" on the environment- when it happens, it produces a predictable outcome.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?
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An operant is any behavior emitted by an organism and controlled by the immediate consequences of the behavior. Called "operant" because the behavior "operates" on the environment- when it happens, it produces a predictable outcome. An operant chamber works on the idea that if you "control your conditions you will see order", thus it is a controlled environment. For example, an operant chamber for a rat has a lever, which if you push food will come down, and bars that can shock you- both of which give consequences (positive or negative). Behavior in the box is recorded and paper gives feedback constantly.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What is an operant? Describe an operant chamber.
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The cumulative recorder is an instrument used to automatically record behavior graphically. Initially, its graphing mechanism has consisted of a rotating drum of paper equipped with a marking needle. The needle would start at the bottom of the page and the drum would turn the roll of paper horizontally. Each response would result in the marking needle moving vertically along the paper one tick. This makes it possible for the rate of response to be calculated by finding the slope of the graph at a given point. For example, a regular rate of response would cause the needle to move vertically at a regular rate, resulting in a straight diagonal line rising towards the right. An accelerating or decelerating rate of response would lead to a curve. The cumulative recorder provided a powerful analytical tool for studying schedules of reinforcement.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What is rate of response and why did Skinner use it as a dependent variable?
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Schedules of reinforcement is the specification of the relationship between the number or pattern of responses and the delivery of reinforcers, whenever reinforcement does not follow each behavior. Came from the idea that in real life reinforcers may occur sporadically rather than after every response. Different schedules of reinforcement could produce different patterns of behavior. (fixed ratio, fixed interval)
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What are the schedules of reinforcement that Skinner developed? Give an example of each.
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These refer to a tendency to propose some hypothetical internal factor mediating between observable stimuli and measurable behaviors and then to use the factor as a pseudo-explanation for the behavior.... are hypothetical constructs proposed as mediators between stimuli and responses that erroneously become used as explanations for behavioral phenomena (e.g. recalling only a few words because of limited short-term memory).
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What are explanatory fictions?
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He opposed formal theories and thought that rather than deducing hypothesis from theoretical statements, designing studies to test these hypotheses, and then adjusting the theory depending on the research outcome- you could use a purely inductive approach for research, studying samples of behavior and looking for regularities that could become general principles.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What was Skinner's view of theories. Contrast his views with Hull's.
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What contributions did Skinner make to each of the following? a. military applications: - Project Pigeon during WWII: Skinner found a small amount of funding and used it to develop a guidance system using pigeons to direct missiles toward targets. With a team of students, he trained the pigeons to key peck at a target screen and as they pecked at the target the missile would change direction until the target remained in the crosshairs of the screen. (later, although skinner was not directly involved, operant technology was used to teach chimpanzees various operant tasks involving missiles in space) b. child care applications: - delved into the areas of child development and parenting c. education: - challenged educational practice and developed a programmed teaching machine to facilitate learning (long before personal computers) d. fiction: - wrote Walden Two, the account of a utopian community based on operant principles (proposed a behavioral technology to improve the world, a story about a community built on operant conditioning ideas).
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM- What contributions did Skinner make to each of the following? a. military applications: b. child care applications: c. education: d. fiction:
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His "radical" behaviorism was outside of mainstream experimental psychology, but he still managed to maintain a devoted group of followers. As with Watson, he was a vigorous promoter to the general public (in contrast to Tolman and Hull). Ranked the #1 all-time psychologist by psychologists. Again in contrast to Tolman and Hull, he featured the applicability of conditioning to improve everyday life.
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c11 EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM-ummarize the text author's evaluation of Skinner's contributions.
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Community size and socioeconomic status were important predictors of care. The poor, especially those living in the larger population areas, received the worst treatment, if they received any help at all. Naturalistic approaches to emotional disorders emerged slowly and met resistance that still continues today. In the Renaissance, views of mental illness were based in demonology. The book, The Witches' Hammer (Malleus Maleficarum) was commissioned to curb the spread of witchcraft. The Malleus was divided into three parts: 1) the classification of devils and witches and the reconciliation of witchcraft and God's omnipotence 2) the methods by which devils and witches influence the world and the means of combating their influence 3) judicial procedures of trying witches. Mental disorders were viewed as the result of voluntary collaboration with a devil or the curse of a witch, and treatments paralleled these diagnoses. Witch hunts and witch trials were widespread throughout Europe, and the trial procedures were written to maximize the likelihood of conviction (torture was often used to elicit a confession). The demise of witchcraft as an explanation for mental illness was slow. Johann Weyer argued that witches were actually suffering from mental illness. Baruch Spinoza believed that devils did not exist because there was nothing other than God. Descartes's mind-brain relationship left no room for demons to work on human minds.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe the explanations for mental illness during the middle ages.
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Humanitarian reform grew as a movement across society and psychology. The movement to reform the treatment of the mentally ill took place in the context of a larger reform movement that included universal education, improved sanitation, abolition of slavery, and equality for women. In France, Philippe Pinel led reform of the treatment of the mentally ill.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What philosopher helped move society away from the view discussed in number 2.
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He removed chains from patients who had been restrained, and instituted humane reforms in Paris, at asylums for men and for women. Pinel classified mental disorders into five major categories 1) melancholia 2) mania without delirium 3) mania with delirium 4) dementia 5) idiotisme. Pinel argued that mental disorders were caused by the individual's environment and lifestyle.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Discuss the contributions to the care of the mentally ill that Phillipe Pinel made.
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He was one of the founders of moral therapy, a precursor to psychotherapy. This included talk treatment. It also featured improvements in patient nutrition, hygiene, and general living conditions, and an early form of behavior modification using rewards and punishments to bring some order into the lives of patients.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What was his "moral treatment?"
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Similar reforms were occurring in England, led by the Quaker William Tuke. The York Retreat was founded in the north and England, which was dedicated to the benevolent treatment of the insane. Set in a rural environment and designed to resemble a working farm more than a prison, the Retreat established a program of treatment similar in spirit to the one used by Pinel. Patients who behaved well were given greater freedom of movement, allowed more visitors, and given more opportunities for recreation and work; on the other hand, those behaving badly or out of control were punished, usually through isolation from other patients, but sometimes by being tied to their beds. Its religious origins meant that Quakers in other parts of the world who had similar reform motives would know about the York Retreat and its philosophy of treatment, and thus it became the model for at east half of the private mental hospitals created in the US in the first quarter of the 19th century.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe the York Retreat. Who started it and why?
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Benjamin Rush is recognized as the first American psychiatrist and author of the first psychopathology textbook in America, Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind. He was a prominent signer of the Declaration of Independence and surgeon general to the Continental Army of the American Revolution.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Who is considered the father of American psychiatry? Where did he live?
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Rush argued that at all psychopathology was the product of physiological processes, primarily in the circulation of blood through the brain. His belief in the connections between mind and body paved the way for future physiological psychologies. This was treated by bloodletting, because he believed that mental illness stemmed from "hypertension in the brain's blood vessels." Thus, to reduce the tension, they had to open the veins and remove blood until the person reached a more tranquil state. This often worked rather well as a temporary means of calming violent patients, undoubtedly because these unfortunate individuals, minus a few pints, were too weak to be hyperactive.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What was Benjamin Rush's theory of mental and physical ailments? What was the treatment?
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In addition to bloodletting, Rush also created two devices for calming the blood. The gyrator was a revolving board on which a patient would be spun rapidly, the idea being to redistribute blood toward the head. The tranquilizer was a chair with straps for restraining arms and legs, and a boxlike device that fit tightly over the head. By eliminating movement, the goal was to reduce the pulse rate. Both devices became standard forms of treatment in post revolutionary asylums, and while they might seem cruel and unusual to us today, they reflected an important new idea at the time- a belief that the mentally ill could benefit from therapy.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What other treatments did Rush develop for the mentally ill?
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Reform became a social movement in America with the work of Dix. She started her work by changing conditions for the mentally ill at the East Cambridge jail, then expanded her efforts to the entire state of Massachusetts and then to the country as a whole. Dix recognized physiological, psychological, and sociological contributions to mental illness. She argued that psychological disorders were the offspring of civilization. For Dix, treatment should include good diet, exercise, amusement, and meaningful occupation. After an 18-month tour of places where the mentally ill were housed and found them exposed poor care, neglect, and abuse. They were treated no better than animals and were often chained to the walls of unheated closet-sized rooms filled with the excrement and beaten into submission only to be left abandoned. On her way home she wrote a scathing indictment of the system and did not mince words when describing the details of what she had seen. Her case was presented to the MA legislature and led to a series of reforms, including an increase of funds to improve the stat's public asylum in Worcester. Her success led her to attempt the same in other states, and she eventually helped to create 47 mental hospitals.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe the work of Dorothea Dix. What was the outcome of her campaigns?
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Most other reformers focused on those already mentally ill and living in institutions, but Beers focused on the ideas that mental illness could be cured, and that with proper care it might even be prevented. It was called the Mental Hygiene Movement, and as a former mental patient himself (he tried to kill himself and was depressed), he was uniquely qualified to discuss the issue. He wrote "The Mind that Found Itself" about the asylum conditions he experienced. He thought that the psychiatrists were incompetent and too willing to use punitive measure, and that the attendants in charge of the day-to-day operation of the wards constantly abused them verbally and physically- thus they needed professional training. Because he experience mental institutions and lived to write about them, a second message of his book was that mental illness was curable.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What is significant about Clifford Beers and his contributions to better care for the mentally ill?
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Emil Kraeplin had a medical degree but also studied with Wundt. He developed a classification scheme for mental illness- nine editions. The sixth edition was most famous, with 13 categories, the two most serious being manic-depressive psychosis, and dementia praecox. This was the first identification of dementia praecox (later called schizophrenia), and he explained the symptoms of inability to focus attention and apperceptive failure (the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to ideas they already possess). His book led to the DSM-IV which is used today.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Who was Emil Kraeplin and what were his contributions to the field of psychiatry?
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He earned a medical degree at the prestigious University of Vienna and established a thriving practice. As a scientist, he was aware of current developments and was intrigued by the discoveries of electricity and magnetism. He became convinced that magnetic powers affected humans directly, with good health being the consequence of properly aligned internal magnetic forces. If these forces became misaligned, he believed that ill health (physical or mental) would follow. Thus the cure would be to straighten out these forces within the body, and he found that he could help many of his patients (especially those suffering from disorders with psychological roots) by giving them medicine with heavy dosing of iron, then passing magnets over their bodies. Patients would fall into a "crisis state", a type of trance, and when they emerged, would find their health improved. He called his theory of illness and cure "Animal magnetism."
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe Franz Mesmer's background. What was his link to animal magnetism?
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He did not know it of course but through "animal magnetism" he had inadvertently demonstrated the power of suggestion on human behavior, and he had discovered what would later be renamed hypnosis.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Why is Mesmer associated with hypnosis?
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The generally conservative medical community in Vienna (where he began) heard of his popular practice, and because it was so hands-on (he replaced the magnets with his own hands, thinking that he held the magnetic powers himself), he was expelled from the medical faculty of the University and ordered to stop practicing medicine in the city. Moving to Paris, he attracted too many patients and dealt with the overcrowding by created a form of group therapy. He expensively decorated a clinic in one of the most fashionable neighborhoods where patients would congregate around Mesmer's famous "baquet". This was a type of wooden chest or tub that contained various chemicals and had iron rods protruding from it in all directions. Patients would join hands and encircle it while Mesmer passed among them encouraging them to enter the crisis state. Undoubtedly influenced by a group contagion effect, once the mass crisis passed, patients recovered their composure and pronounced themselves much better. Most could afford the treatment, but for those who couldn't, Mesmer provided free magnetism by magnetizing a large oak tree in Paris Park. Paris at the time was full of uncertainty and thought that this "mesmerism" was a quack, so it was taken up by a distinguished commission of the French Royal Academy of Sciences (as appointed by the king and headed by Ben Franklin). As in Vienna, it was concluded that his form of therapy had no foundation in science and any patients helped were helped by only their own beliefs. Mesmer ignored the commission report and continued to practice for a time, but left Paris and lived in London and Germany practicing mesmerism until his death.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What was his Paris salon like? What happened to Mesmer's career?
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It demonstrated effects on pain reduction, and was renamed by Braid as "neurypnology", meaning sleep of the nervous system.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- How was hypnosis and viewed in England?
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The Nancy School of hypnosis originated from the curiosity of Liebeault who was intrigued by an old book on animal magnetism. He gained success by recruiting patients for free and his popularity attracted the attention of skeptic Bernheim. Instead becoming a convert, the two thought of the concept of suggestion, which they defined as the ability to uncritically accept an idea or a command suggested by a hypnotist, and transform it into action. They considered suggestibility to be a personality trait like any other, with every person having it to some degree. Hypnotic susceptibility was therefore a normal phenomenon experienced with varying degrees of strength for each person. They induced hypnosis by having the patient stare into their eyes while being told to relax deeply. Once in a sleeplike trance, the doctor would suggest to the patient that the symptoms would go away- and they often did just that. Meanwhile the Salpetriere Hospital in Paris had become the European center for the study of hypnosis. The hospital's director, Charcot, observed that many of the symptoms of hysteria (his specialty) were the same as phenomena demonstrated under hypnosis. Due to this he came to believe that hysteria and the ability to be hypnotized shared the same underlying pathology. Thus, although the hypnotists at Nancy considered suggestibility a normal trait and therefore generally useful as a therapy tool, Charcot declared that hypnotism was dangerous if it was used indiscriminately. Furthermore, he argued, susceptibility to hypnosis was an indication of underlying hysteric tendencies, which Charcot believed were the result of an inherited nervous system disorder. Hypnotism then, was an "innately predisposed reaction on the part of hysterics to stroking, fixations of the sensory apparatus, and various other means of hypnotic induction". Hypnotism could be useful, Charcot proclaimed, primarily as a means of investigating and influencing the symptoms of those suffering from hysteria, and only true hysterics could be hypnotized. Charcot would take his most hysteric patients and hypnotize them, he could suggest various symptoms to them and even suggest the removal of hysteric symptoms, from which he claimed some success. The doctors from Nancy disagreed sharply and argued that his dramatic demonstrations merely showed the effects of suggestion, as his patients knew what was expected of them. Most observers rejected Charcot's ideas in favor of the Nancy model
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What was the controversy over hypnosis between the Nancy school and Charcot's Salpetriere in Paris? Be complete in your answer.
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Hysteria is a disorder characterized by a wide range of symptoms that appeared to indicate neurological malfunction, but without apparent physical damage to the nervous system. Some patients experienced epilepsy-like seizures, others developed paralyses that were neurologically impossible (e.g. only the hand), and still others had nervous tics, severe headaches, sensory loss (e.g. deafness), or memory lapses. The term "hysteria" derives from the Greek word for uterus, and for a time it was thought that the disorder was experienced only by females. Contemporary medical opinion, grounded in the materialistic belief that true disorders had a physical basis, was that hysterics were simply making up their symptoms. Because Charcot observed that many of the symptoms of hysteria were the same as phenomena demonstrated under hypnosis, he came to believe that hysteria and the ability to be hypnotized shared the same underlying pathology, and thus using hypnosis on non-hysterics could be dangerous. Hypnosis could be used to diagnose hysteria and rule out malingering.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Charcot was an expert in hysteria. Describe that disorder. How did he see hysteria and hypnosis linking?
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He came to experience Charcot and learn from his brilliant lectures and demonstrations. Specializing in disorders of the nervous system, which includes hysterics, he began to learn about hypnosis when he earned a 6-month travel grant to study with Charcot at the Salpetriere. He later used hypnosis in the early years of his practice, but eventually abandoned it as an ineffective technique for exploring the unconscious mind.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What was Freud's connection to Charcot?
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Charcot would take his most hysteric patients and hypnotize them; they apparently would compete for the privilege of being "on stage". He could suggest various symptoms to them, and predictably, they would perform as expected. One such patient was Blanche Wittman, whose dramatic performances earned her the title among her peers of "Queen of the Hysterics". He could also suggest the removal of hysteric symptoms, from which he claimed some success.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe Charcot's demonstrations at his hospital.
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Moved to Vienna with his family when he was four and stayed there until Nazi threat took him to London. Grew up in a large poor family and was given special treatment like his own room for a study, a generous book buying allowance, the ending of his siblings' piano playing (the noise distracted him), and the only lamp. He had a strong attachment to his young mother and his family was distant. Because they were Jewish, they faced discrimination and blame for the problems in Vienna which led to physical and political attack. He graduated high school with honors and was accepted into Vienna's famed medical school where continued discrimination occurred, but he rose to become an academic star. He never wanted to practice medicine, his passion was research. He became interested in physiology and came to believe that all events have causes that can be identified through science (e.g. dreams). It took him 8 years rather than five to earn his medical degree because he spent so much time doing research. Believed strongly in evolution and the central importance of sexual motivation. When he graduated, he wanted to continue as a researcher but was poor, and as a Jew couldn't find an academic position. If he wished to marry the woman he fell in love with, he had to establish a medical practice, so he specialized in the disorders of the nervous system.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Give an overview of Sigmund Freud's background.
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As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He wrote several articles on the antidepressant qualities of the drug. Freud felt that cocaine would work as a panacea and wrote a well-received paper, "On Coca", explaining its virtues. He prescribed it to a friend to help him overcome a morphine addiction acquired while treating a disease of the nervous system; he developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis" as a result of Freud's prescriptions and died a few years later. Freud also recommended cocaine to many of his close family and friends. Soon, reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world. Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished because of this. Freud felt great regret over these events, dubbed by later biographers as "The Cocaine Incident". He managed to move on although some speculate that he continued to use cocaine after this event.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Discuss Freud's experience and support of cocaine.
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Joseph Breuer was an eminent physician and neurologist known for his discovery of the role played by the semicircular canals of the inner ear in maintaining balance and equilibrium. While Freud was still finishing medical school, Breuer had treated a perplexing case of hysteria that was destined to become one of the defining events in the history of psychoanalysis: the Anna O. case. Freud believed he detected a strong undercurrent of sexuality in the case, as she was unusually attached to her father and Breuer. Breuer rejected Freud's argument that all neuroses had sexual origins, and split with Freud over the issue, thus ending a long friendship.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What was Freud's connection with Joseph Breuer? What caused the end of their relationship?
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She was an intelligent woman in her early 20s with a bewildering array of hysteric symptoms. At various times her right then her left side appeared to be paralyzed and anesthetic, she had a persistent nervous cough, experienced both visual and auditory deficits, developed bizarre eating habits (e.g. living solely on oranges for weeks), lost the ability to speak German for a time but could still speak English, and experience dissociative states that she called "absences". The problems appeared to be precipitated by the long-term nursing care she had given to her dying father, but also general frustrations about her situation in life (culture and family stifled her intellect and ambitions). Breuer found success with what he called the method of catharsis. He discovered that if Anna could be made to trace a particular symptom back to the occasion of its first appearance, she would experience an emotional release, which he referred to as a "catharsis," and she would gain relief from the symptom. Anna referred to it as her "talking cure."
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe the case of Anna O. How did Breuer treat her hysteria?
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Although the cathartic method had some success, relief was often only temporary and the initial diagnosis of hysteria was a small part of her problem (she also had psychotic symptoms and possibly a dissociative disorder). Breuer's wife didn't like him spending so much time with the attractive woman, and when Anna developed a false pregnancy and named him the father, he did his catharsis magic to relieve the symptom and then terminated the therapy in a mild panic. After leaving Breuer's care she spent several lengthy confinements in a sanatorium.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What has further research into the case of Anna O. told us about her after she left Breuer's care?
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This occurs when the patient develops a strong emotional attachment to the therapist.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What is transference in regards to a therapist and the patient?
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a. Who were Freud's usual patients? - Hysterics. b. Describe his treatment of these patients. - From a Darwinian influence, he believed that irrationality and sex were the causes. Some methods for assessing the unconscious he tried were hypnosis (rejected), and free association and dream analysis. He came up with the seduction hypothesis, through which he felt hysteria was the result of sexual abuse. But he abandoned the idea after self-analysis, in favor of "imagined seduction", which led to the Oedipal complex and focus on sexual motivation. He believed that hysterics suffer from reminiscences and that their symptoms were symbolically related to their cause. He tried conventional methods such as hydrotherapy (designed to soothe the nerves), a hypnosis procedure where he pressed on the patient's forehead while insisting that they retrieve repressed memories, then finally free association. Through this, patients were placed in a relaxed position and encouraged to say whatever came into their minds without censor. This often proved difficult for patients who would display "resistance" through which they would be unable or unwilling to mention something that had happened to them. Freud welcomed this, believing it was a sure sign that he was getting to the root of their problems. In addition to free association, Freud used dream analysis as a means to explore to unconscious, which he first hit upon when trying to perform psychoanalysis on himself.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- a. Who were Freud's usual patients? b. Describe his treatment of these patients.
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The Interpretation of Dreams, which was written from his own recalled dreams. He found dreams to provide a rich source of information, both on their own and as a starting point for further free association. He believed that dreams were disguised wished and he distinguished between the manifest content of a dream (our verbal description of it, what it appears to be about), from latent content (its true unconscious meaning, usually having to do with sex and/or aggression).
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What book marks the beginning of psychoanalysis? Who was the subject of that book?
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He became convinced that unresolved sexual problems were at the heart of the matter for his troubled patients. Patients exploring their past by means of free associations and dream analysis often seemed to have experienced some type of sexual trauma at a young age. Hysteria, he argued, was the result of childhood sexual abuse by a parent or other adult. Because the young child had no understanding of what was happening, Freud believed, the experience was forgotten, buried deep in the unconscious mind. Sometime after puberty occurred and the person began to understand about and experience mature sexuality, the long-buried memory would resurface in the form of one of more hysterical symptoms. He began to doubt the strength of his theory after some of his patients' stories didn't seem to stand up to other evidence. Also, Freud was bothered by the idea that it was only sexual traumas in childhood that led to later problems, as it excluded things such as bad falls and severe illness. He abandoned his seduction theory and replaced it with the idea that sexual events in childhood were not real but imagined and that sexuality did not begin in adolescence but existed in some form from infancy.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Freud's theory emphasizes the role of sex in our personalities and goals. What was his seduction hypothesis? How did he modify this later?
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After writing four books in five years, Freud's reputation grew as a psychoanalyst specializing in the treatment of hysteria. In America, his theories caught the enthusiastic attention of Stanley Hall of Clark University. Hall described Breuer and Freud's work on hysteria in his book on adolescence, and was offering courses on sexuality. To celebrate the twentieth anniversary of Clark's founding, Hall invited Freud to receive an honorary degree and to lecture on psychoanalysis. Freud returned with a healthy dislike of the country, especially its food, but was grateful to Hall, crediting him with enhancing the international reputation of psychoanalysis and providing "the first official recognition of our endeavors." For Freud, he got international recognition, but other than Hall, who was a big fan, American psychologists weren't sure what to make of him.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe Freud's only visit to the United States. How did that visit come about?
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Our personality has a tripartite structure with the id (wants sex and aggression, constantly demands that its needs be satisfied), the ego (partly conscious, partly unconscious, and lies at the center in an attempt to keep balance), and the superego (the person's learned moral values, works to inhibit the free expression of the instincts). The demands made on the ego necessarily produce some tension in the form of anxiety, which serves as a signal to the ego that it is under attack. In response to this attack, the ego responds through defense. The response to this type of internal anxiety must also come from within, and does so in the form of ego "defense mechanisms," an idea from which influence came from Anna Freud (daughter and fellow analyst). The most common form of defense is repression (accomplished by the unconscious part of the ego, unwanted impulses are actively forced from awareness into the unconscious), projection (personal faults cannot be accepted so they are attributed to some other person), reaction formation (unacceptable impulses are repressed and replaced with opposite ones), sublimation (channels instinctive urges into activities that have social value). Freud believed that sublimation was the only successful defense.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What is a defense mechanism?
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Psychosexual stages are developmental stages based on erogenous zones; the specific needs of each stage must be met for its successful resolution. Each stage involves a specific erogenous zone that provides id satisfaction. At each stage, there is a developmental task that must be resolved for healthy development. If the needs of a stage are not satisfied, the energy remains focused there- "fixation", and in times of stress we regress to this fixated stage. 1) Oral stage- 0-1- mouth (suck, bite)- successful weaning from mom's breast or bottle. 2) Anal stage- 1-3- anus (retain, expel feces)- successful toilet training 3) Phallic stage- 3- 6- clitoris or penis- successful identification with same sex parent.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- What are the psychosexual stages a child goes through?
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Freud began attracting the interest of other physicians in Vienna and asked four of them to join him on Wednesday evenings to discuss issues related to psychoanalysis; they were called the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Freud made it clear that his word was to be law. When Adler began to question Freud's seeming obsession with the universality of sexual motivation (favored his own inferiority complex). From this he became alienated from Freud and eventually tossed out of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, taking several followers with him and they never reconciled.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Describe Freud's relationship with his followers. What happened when one disagreed with him?
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Adler didn't believe sexual motivate could be applied to all cases and instead proposed the "inferiority complex" as the basis for an alternative theory. He emphasized social factors over biological (sex), and explained that all infants are inherently inferior in their abilities, and life could be viewed as an attempt to compensate for this inferiority. He also pointed out that as we grow, the social environment places obstacles in our paths that also create feelings of inferiority to be overcome. Carl Jung questioned Freud's emphasis on sex as well, and developed "analytical psychology" and "collective unconscious", which explained that our unconscious included the collective experiences of our ancestors; reflected in the common themes that occur in the mythology of various cultures.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Who are two famous psychotherapists that were in Freud's group, but left after disagreeing with him about his theories? What is a major idea each is known for?
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At the suggestion of Ernest Jones, destined to be Freud's hand picked biographer, Freud formed a secret group of eight called the "Committee" and gave each a gold ring. Their task was to safeguard orthodox Freudianism, respond to critics, control the various psychoanalytic organizations, and as it turned out, perpetuate the Freudian myth. He also destroyed his papers and correspondence on at least two occasions thereby making it difficult to trace the roots of his ideas
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- How did Freud control what would be written about him?
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With the rise of the Nazis, Jewish professors were routinely dismissed from their positions, and in addition psychoanalysis was branded "Jewish science" and outlawed in Germany. Soon his writings were publicly burned along with other books by Jews. He finally left Vienna after Nazi sympathizers searched his home and briefly detained his daughter, Anna.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- How was Freud's life affected by the Nazi government in World War II?
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Many scholars have uncovered many of the sources and antecedents of Freud's ideas and thus they are seen as considerably less than original. Nonetheless, any attempt to understand human nature must include serious consideration of his work. Although he didn't discover the unconscious, he popularized it and added repression, defense, and the "Freudian slip." His emphasis on unconscious motives raised awareness of the need to study motivational processes, and also to study the effects of the events of early childhood on later development. Also, at a time when the medical community favored biological explanations of mental disorders and their treatment, Freud showed that some problems were psychological in origin and thus could be treated by psychological means. As criticism, he was overly dogmatic with his excessive emphasis on sex. Also, he had a biased interpretation of his cases, a limited number of cases from which he would fit the data to his theory (the opposite of what should be done).
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Summarize the text author's evaluation of Freud's contributions.
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He was trained as a laboratory psychology under Wundt and became the laboratory director at Penn. He believed that psychology should be able to improve people's lives, so when a friend brought in one of her students who couldn't seem to learn how to spell besides being competent otherwise, he wanted to help. Finding poor eyesight, his problem improved somewhat. Next, a child with a speech disorder came in, and again Witmer tried to help him. Thus his laboratory had a portion turned into a clinic, which launched clinical psychology, the eventual outcome being several days of conference on the topic, and celebrations at the 1996 APA convention. He also founded the journal "The Psychological Clinic," in which he wrote an essay called "Clinical Psychology" giving a name to the emerging new specialty and urged for increased research and training. He wanted the creation of "a new profession- that of the psychological expert, who should find his career in connection with the school system, through the examination and treatment of mentally and morally retarded children."
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Who is Lightner Witmer? Why is he credited with the start of clinical psychology?
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Before WWII, it had a generally low status and was generally limited to administering tests. It was difficult to gain recognition in the APA. In 1917 American Association of Clinical Psychologists was formed, but was short lived and replaced by a "clinical section" and associate member status in the 1920s. In 1937, the AAAP was created (American Association for Applied Psychology), and for applied psychologists, this was a serious alternative to APA. In 1943, an "intersociety" convention led to new APA with a division structure. The goals of the APA expanded to include professional issues of interest to clinicians.
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Discuss clinical psychology in America.
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He believed that the environment could shape behavior and believed that if past environmental influences produced the problem behavior observed in the clinic, then future environmental intervention could alter behavior and make the child more productive as a student. He argued that to emphasize heredity is to give up hope of change and introduced the term "orthogenics" to refer to this strategy of "investigating retardation and deviation and the methods of restoring to normal condition those who are found for one reason or another to be retarded or deviate."
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c12 MENTAL ILLNESS- Rather than mental illness, what were the problems of the children he worked with?
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Humanistic psychology started as a revolt and rejected what it believed to be the "mechanistic, impersonal, hierarchical, elitist psychoanalytic establishment and the overly scientistic, cold, removed behaviorism." Humanistic psychologists criticized the ideas that human behavior could be reduced to repressed biological instincts or simple conditioning processes, rejected the idea that individuals'' past histories inevitably limited what their futures could be, and denied the deterministic assumptions of the other two forces in psychology- psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Why is humanistic psychology considered the third force in psychology? What were the other two?
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They proposed that the qualities best characterizing humans are free will and a sense of responsibility and purpose, a forward-looking lifelong search for meaning in one's life, and an innate tendency to grow toward what was called "self actualization." To become self-actualized meant to reach one's full potential in life.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Would you describe humanistic psychology as based upon determinism or free-will. Explain.
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Maslow was trained as an experimental psychologist and researched dominance behavior in primates, but later exchanged what he saw as a sterile and reductionist scientific approach for the more wholistic humanistic strategy. He came up with the hierarchy of needs, a model that proposed a series of need systems, arranged in a pyramid, with lower level and more primitive needs at the bottom and self-actualization at the top.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Why is Abraham Maslow identified with humanistic psychology?
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To become self-actualized meant to reach one's full potential in life. Achieving self-actualization required satisfying all the needs below it- physiological needs, safety needs, the need for love and belonging, and the need for self esteem, in that order.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What is self-actualization?
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Maslow believed that studying self-actualization, in contrast with a strategy that examines psychological disorders, would produce a healthier psychology. He studied Ruth Benedict and Max Wertheimer and realized that they both 1) perceived reality accurately, 2) were highly independent and creative, 3) were spontaneous and natural around others, 4) thought of their work as a career or calling rather than a job, 5) had a strong moral code, 6) and would occasionally have moments of intense enjoyment and satisfaction (peak experiences).
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Who did Maslow study when looking for characteristics of a person who has self-actualized? What characteristics do self-actualized people have?
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A rare experience of extreme joy, pleasure, or accomplishment.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What is a peak experience?
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The humanistic approach to psychotherapy created by Rogers; it assumed that responsibility for therapeutic change ultimately belonged to the client, while the therapist's responsibility was to create an atmosphere conducive to change (free-will based).
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What is client-centered therapy? Why is it considered a humanistic approach?
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Consistent with one of humanistic psychology's cornerstone ideas, Rogers rejected the notion that it was important to delve into the client's past history in order for therapy to be effective.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: In client-centered therapy, what part does your past history play?
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The formula for success was for the therapist to create the right kind of therapeutic environment; this, in turn, would allow the client to be able to take control of their life and being to grow in the direction of self-actualization.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What is the focus of client-centered therapy?
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Client, because patient had medical overtones.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What word did Rogers use rather than the word "patient?"
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"This means that I need to be aware of my own feelings rather than presenting an outward façade of one attitude, while actually holding another attitude at a deeper level. Being genuine also involves the willingness to be ad to express, in my words and my behavior, the various feelings and attitudes which exist in me." Being genuine would also enable the therapist to act as a model for the kind of emotional health being sought in the client.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Explain how the concept of genuineness plays a role in therapy.
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The therapist must remain genuine and honest with the client. They must also be accepting of the client as a person, meaning a "warm regard for him as a person of unconditional worth- of value no matter what his condition, his behavior, or his feelings." This means accepting a person as having value by virtue of simply being a human being; it can also mean avoiding labels. They also must always have empathy, which follows from the humanistic philosophy proposing that reality is the reality as perceived and experienced by a person. Hence, understanding someone else requires trying to understand how that person views things.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What are the three components of therapy according to Rogers?
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Rogers recognized that a complete understanding of another person was impossible, but it was the effort that counted. This effort included the major therapeutic technique used by Rogers, called reflection. It meant taking something said by the client and rephrasing it in a way that leads the client to think "this therapist understand what I'm saying." For example, C: I suppose that from a practical point of view, what I should be doing is solving some day-to-day problems, but what I'm trying to do is solve something that's more important than that. T: I wonder if this will distort your meaning, that from a hard headed point of view you ought to be spending time thinking through some specific problems, but you wonder if perhaps maybe you aren't on a quest for this whole you and perhaps that's more important that a solution to the day-to-day problems. C: I think that's it.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Give an example of reflection as used in therapy.
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If the therapist succeeds in establishing the proper therapeutic environment, good things will happen and the client will "show fewer of the characteristics which are usually termed neurotic or psychotic, and more of the characteristics of a healthy, well-functioning person." Rogers was able to demonstrate the therapy's effectiveness on the basis of a program of research that he and his students developed. He was able to show that his approach brought about measurable positive change in people's lives.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: Was/is humanistic therapy effective?
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This is blanket acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does. Rogers believes that unconditional positive regard is essential to healthy development. People who have not experienced it may come to see themselves in the negative ways that others have made them feel. By providing unconditional positive regard, humanist therapists seek to help their clients accept and take responsibility for themselves. Humanist psychologists believe that by showing the client unconditional positive regard and acceptance, the therapist is providing the best possible conditions for personal growth to the client.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What is unconditional positive regard?
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Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent", and "to make normal life more fulfilling", not simply to treat mental illness. The emerging field of Positive Psychology is intended to complement, not to replace traditional psychology. By scientifically studying what has gone right, rather than wrong in both individuals and societies, Positive Psychology hopes to achieve a renaissance of sorts.
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c13 HUMANISTIC: What is positive psychology?
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Cognitive processes such as perception, memory, attention, language, imagery, and thinking; it aimed at a scientific understanding of conscious experience.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What do cognitive psychologists study?
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It began to develop during the 1950s and especially the 1960s. Those scientists studied such mental phenomena as memory, attention, perception, and thinking, which were the basics of cognitive psychology.
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c14 COGNITIVE: When did modern cognitive psychology begin to develop? How is the work of Wundt, Titchener, Kulpe, Wertheimer, and others similar to what cognitive psychology encompasses?
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Bartlett, from England, is most known for studying memory. In the United States, his book, Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology was largely ignored.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What is Frederick Bartlett known for researching? What nationality was he? Was his work a hit in the field of psychology?
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Bartlett argued that research on memory should focus more on the attributes of the memorizer and less on the nature of the stimulus materials. He believed that the memorizer, rather than passively accumulating associative strength as the result of practice and repetition (as Ebbinghaus said), actively organizes the material into meaningful wholes that he referred to as schemata (plural form of "schema"). Bartlett defined these schemata as "active organizations of past reactions, or of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response." For example, as a result of our experiences, we will develop a schema relating to the concept of death. This schema will in turn influence our current and future perceptions of death and dying and affect our memory of these experiences. People with different experiences and from different cultures will have different schemata about death. Thus, schemata are general concepts that comprise our understanding of the world.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What are schemata in Bartlett's work?
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To provide empirical support for the idea of schemata, he developed a series of memory tasks and used a series of five postcards, each with the face of a military man drawn on it. Bartlett would place the cards in front of his subjects (20), always arranging them in the same sequence. The subjects were given ten seconds to examine ach of the five cards, and when studying a particular card, the other four were face down. After thirty minutes of conversation unrelated to the test, subjects were asked to describe the contents of the pictures in the same order they studied them, and were asked a series of questions about them. He described his results in narrative (rather than summary statistics like Ebbinghaus), and his descriptions of methodology were vague. With regard to position, he found something similar to a modern serial position effect: perfect recall of the first face, and better recall for the first and last than the middle. He also asked about "direction of regard," by which he meant whether the face were turned to the left or right, and found that answers were wrong more than half of the time. As for accuracy of detail, transposing detail ("transferring") from one picture to another, and reporting detail not found in the drawings ("importation"), Bartlett found numerous mistakes. Importation seemed definitely most liable to occur in relation to salient detail. However, when we consider that salience of detail in the main is determined by specialized interest, we can see that this after all just what might be expected. For example, one subject, an army officer, was especially interested in military cap badges. In his descriptions he changed these into badges of regiments with which he was most familiar with on active service. This is similar to eyewitness memory- with lack of accuracy, addition of detail not originally seen, and the damaging effects of leading questions. The study also illustrates one of the main themes of his book, an emphasis on the interests and attitudes of the memorizer rather than the nature of the stimulus material itself.
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c14 COGNITIVE: Describe Bartlett's postcard study. What were his findings?
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Using what Bartlett called the "method of repeated reproduction," participants were given a 328-word story to read through twice at their own speed. The story was a Native American folk tale called "The War of the Ghosts." Thus, the story reflected a culture quite different from that of early 20th century England and had certain elements that wouldn't make sense to a typical British man. Fifteen minutes after reading the story they were asked to reproduce as much of it as they could. Additional reproductions were elicited at later intervals ranging from hours to months. Bartlett even found one former subject six years later and asked him to recall the story. He found that total recall declined with the passage of time, but not only did they recall less- what they recalled was shaped by their need to form a coherent understandable story within the context of their own cultural knowledge systems. Thus, "something black coming out of his mouth" (as in the story), turned into "foaming at the mouth" or "his soul leaving the body." Thus, memory was not merely an act of reproducing intact memory trace; rather, it was an active process of construction. Condensation, elaboration and invention are all common features of ordinary remembering, and these all very often involve the mingling of materials belonging originally to different "schemata."
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c14 COGNITIVE: Describe Bartlett's study of the story "The War of the Ghosts." What were his findings?
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The serial order problem concerns the question of how to explain, in terms of cerebral mechanisms, linear sequences of behavior, ranging from the series of finger movements while playing the violin to the memorization of a list of words to the production of language in sentences. A basic tenet of association theory was the adjacent elements in a sequence become associated or "chained" together because they are experienced together (i.e. contiguously- sharing a common border). Lashley argued that such a formulation was inadequate. In complex motor skills such as playing the violin, for example, the sequence of behaviors occurs much too rapidly for one element to depend on the neurological analysis of the preceding element and be the stimulus for the next element. Also, the oral production of a sentence is more complex than a simple sequencing of words, as illustrated by the rules of syntax and slips of the tongue. Instead of a cortical model based on the concept of linear associative chains, Lashley argued that the brain was a more complex system that exercised organizational control over patterns of behavior. In essence, brain physiology makes sequential S-R impossible.
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c14 COGNITIVE: Influences on cognitive psychology from within psychology included the work of Karl Lashley. Explain his serial order problem.
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The computer is essentially a device for taking in information from the environment, processing it internally, and producing some output. By analogy, the brain could be seen as doing the same thing. One advantage of the computer metaphor was that it provided a scientifically respectable way to discuss complex internal mental processes, thus muting behaviorism's criticisms that psychological scientists shouldn't be dealing with mysterious unobservable entities that intervene between stimulus and response, and avoiding the old problems with introspection. "Computers give us an existence-proof of the complexity that is possible in information-processing systems. This made us all feel a lot freer." However, this metaphor overlooks emotions and motivation.
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c14 COGNITIVE: Why is the computer seen as such a good metaphor for cognition?
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Further respectability came from a refinement in the way of describing the flow of information through the system. This occurred with the publication of "The Mathematical Theory of Communication," which introduced the "information theory" and the concept of the "bit." An electrical engineer recognized a connection between the logical operators of "true" and "false" and the two states, "on" and "off." The "bit" was defined as the amount of information that would enable a decision between two equally likely alternatives- thus, information reduces uncertainty. A coin toss, for instance, contains on bit of information because it tells us which of two possible outcomes is true. The significance of the concept was that it provided a way of standardizing units of information, regardless of the form the information took. The bit wound up being more important for computer science than for cognitive psychology, but it added further legitimacy to the scientific study of the mind.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What develops in computers influenced the explanations and how to study cognitive phenomena?
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He wrote a highly critical review of Skinner's "Verbal Behavior," which attempted to put language into operant terms. Language development occurs too rapidly for conditioning to be relevant, he argued. Even if we could learn a sentence per second, there are not enough seconds in a lifetime to learn all the sentences that we are capable of producing. Furthermore, people routinely create and/or understand sentences they have never experienced before. Language was simply too complex for what Chomsky took to be an overly simplistic behaviorist explanation. Human language is special because it is not verbal behavior that was the outcome of conditioning and associative learning, but is the result of the application of a hierarchical set of rules called a grammar. These rules allow the individual to generate a virtually infinite number of grammatical sentences, while also enabling the person to immediately identify nongrammatical sentences. This ability to use grammar is instinctively human and is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes humans from other species, he believed.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What argument did Noam Chomsky, a linguist, make against behaviorism? What makes human language special?
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An all-embracing worldview within the scientific community that organizes what is known into a grand theory, determines how terms are defined and what problems are to be solved by scientists, and dictates appropriate research methods.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What is a paradigm?
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This article explained the limited capacity of immediate memory. Depending on the type of information being memorized, people can only process between five (for monosyllabic words) to nine (for binary digits) items at a time. Recognizing that the amount of information in bits varies dramatically, depending on the type of material being studied, Miller introduced a new term called the "chunk" to refer to the information being held in immediate memory. Hence, the capacity limit on short-term memory was identified as seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information, the chunk being a small, meaningful unit of information.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What is meant by George Miller's "seven, plus or minus 2?"
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Miller introduced information theory to psychologists in a Psychological Review article. He showed how information theory concepts such as bits and channel capacity could be used to describe limits on our ability to process information in several kinds of tasks.
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c14 COGNITIVE: Discuss George Miller's introduction of information theory to cognitive psychology.
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A memory chunk is the information being held in immediate memory; the capacity limit on short-term memory was identified as seven, plus or minus two, chinks of information, the chunk being a small, meaningful until of information. Miller applied the information theory concept of recoding to take into account the fact that humans have the ability to reorganize data, thereby squeezing in more information per chunk. In his words, because "the memory span is a fixed number of chunks, we can increase the number of bits of information that it contains simply by building larger and larger chunks, each chunk containing more information than before." Miller used the example of Morse code; the learner first hears each dot and dash as individual units. With experience, however, combinations of these sounds are recorded ("chunked") as whole letter, then words, then phrases, so that the experienced operator can, in effect, keep many more dots and dashes in immediate memory than the novice.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What is a memory chunk? Explain how we can increase the amount we remember.
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In his research using a dichotic listening procedure, he had research participants experience two channels of information at the same time, one sent to each ear via headphones. They were able to document limits on the ability to use multiple communication channels, showing, for instance, that while attending to one message, very little of a second message could be recalled. From this, he proposed a simple selective filter model of attention. When confronted with two streams of information, he suggested, our limited capacity system separates the information on the basis of physical characteristics, enabling us to filter out one message and select the other for attention and further processing. The problem of selective attention is sometimes called the "cocktail party phenomenon" because the task resembled that of trying to listen to two conversations at once.
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c14 COGNITIVE: Miller researched dichotic listening and selective filtering. What did this type of research look like and what was the finding?
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Experimental psychology benefited from increased government funding of al scientific research, part of the attempt during the cold war to reestablish American scientific supremacy in the wake of Soviet's Sputnik success. By the mid-1960s, sufficient research existed to warrant book-length summaries, and texts in cognitive psychology began to appear, most notably Ulric Niesser's Cognitive Psychology, which gave a specific name to the converging ideas of Miller and others.
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c14 COGNITIVE: How did it happen that Ulric Neisser named cognitive psychology?
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This means research with relevance for the everyday cognitive activities of people trying to adapt to their environment. He urged that experimental psychologists "must make a greater effort to understand cognition as it occurs in the ordinary environment and in the context of natural purposeful activity. This would not mean an end to laboratory experiments, but a commitment to the study of variable that are ecologically important rather than those that are easily manageable."
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c14 COGNITIVE: Neisser called for research with more ecological validity. What is that?
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Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field that includes cognitive psychology, linguistics, computer science, cultural anthropology, and epistemology (philosophical theory of knowledge). It is defined broadly as an "empirically based effort to answer long-standing epistemological questions- particularly those concerned with the nature of knowledge, its components, its sources, its development, and its deployment." It could have been called applied epistemology or intellectual theory. Cognitive psychology is a big part of the interdisciplinary super field of cognitive science, which also encompasses neuroscience, artificial intelligence, computer science, biology, and other scientific disciplines.
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c14 COGNITIVE: How is cognitive science different from cognitive psychology?
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One important focus of interest among cognitive scientists has been in the applied computer science area of artificial intelligence (AI), which may be defined simply as the field that attempts to examine whether machines can act with some degree of intelligence. It focuses mainly on understanding human intelligence, studying it by attempting to write computer programs that simulate human cognitive processing. The other main focus is on creating a computer program that will perform some task in the most efficient way possible regardless of how humans might approach the task.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What is artificial intelligence?
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Its focus is in understanding human intelligence, studying it by attempting to write computer programs that simulate human cognitive processing. Consider human problem solving, for example. The idea is that if a computer can be made to solve problems in the same way that humans solve problems, then the problem-solving strategies built into the computer program can be seen as analogous to human strategies.
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c14 COGNITIVE: What role has artificial intelligence played in the study of the brain?
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An algorithm is a set of rules guaranteed to produce a solution by working systematically through all possible steps. A heuristic, on the other hand, is a more creative strategy or "rule of thumb" that, while not guaranteeing a solution, is more efficient than an algorithm. A common anagram problem can illustrate the difference. When asked to rearrange the letters "LTEAGST" so that a real word is formed, an algorithmic approach would be to try every possible combination of letters until a solution was reached. This would not present a problem for a computer, which performs operations very quickly. However, humans would attempt to solve it by using heuristics, such as "do not consider uncommon combinations of pair letters." Thus the solver would try the combination of "ST" but not "GT," on the way toward solving it.
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c14 COGNITIVE: In the study of artificial intelligence, What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic? Give examples of each.
