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Learning

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Systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

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Behaviorism

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A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing and hoping.

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Types of learning

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Associative learning and Observational learning

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Associative learning

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Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events.

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Conditioning

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Process of learning associations.

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Types of Conditioning

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Classical and operant (studeid by behaviorists).

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Observational Learning

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Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior and requires mental processes: attention, remember, reproduce model.

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Classical Conditioning

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Organism learn the association between two stimuli, learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

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Pavlov's Classical Conditioning

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Nutral stimulus (bell) presented just before the undontioned stimulus (food) become conditioned stimulus by pairing with unconditioned stimulus and elicited conditioned resonse (dog's salivation).

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Unconditioned stimulus (US)

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Stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

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Unconditioned response (UR)

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Unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

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Previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned response (CR)

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Learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US pairing.

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Acquisition

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Initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.

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Important factors for US-CS pairing to work

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Contiguity and Contingency.

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Contiguity

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Means that CS and US are presented very close together in time

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Contingency

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Means that CS must also serve as a reliable indicator that US is on its way, providing a sistematic signal.

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Sign tracking

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Tendency to become more attached to CS than to the US, behavir indicating an unusualy high level of attachment to the CS, involving approaching and interacting with the CS as if it has become a strongly desired thing in its own right.

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Generalization (in classical conditioning)

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Tendency of a new stimulus that is smiliar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response and prevents learning from being tied to specific stimuli.

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Discrimination (in classical conditioning)

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Process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not other.

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Extinction

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Weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent (CS loses its power to produce the CR)

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Spontanous recover

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Process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning, and can occur several times with CS alone to become weaker and cease eventualy.

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Renewal

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Recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context (after drug treatment returning to previous living situations).

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John Watson and Rosalie Rayner

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Demonstrated classical conditioning's role in development of fears with an infant Albert (white rat pairing with a loud noise, illustrating stimulus generalization in class.cond.)

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Fear

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Learned through classical conditioning (painful experience may cause fear of dentist, car crash causing fear of driving)

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Counterconditioning

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Classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.

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Aversive conditioning

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Form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus (electric shocks, neusea-inducing substances, antabuse)

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Immunosuppression

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Decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower the person's ability to fight disease.

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Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen

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Conducted studies on immunosuppression (paired Saccharin solution with drug Cytoxan that induces neusea on rats, but rats developed desease and died due to suppressed immune system functioning as side effect of Cytoxan)

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Endocrine system classical conditioning

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Placebo pills can influence the secretion of hormones if patients had previously experiences with pills containg actual drug that affected the hormone secretion.

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Taste aversion

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Special kind of classical conditioning involving to learn association between a particular taste and nausea (often a long lasting association).

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Habitation

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Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

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Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

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Form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavir change the probability of behavior's accurance and occur spontanously

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Throrndike's Law of Effect (law of effect)

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Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and the behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

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Skinner's Approach

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Operant behaviors occur spontaneously and the consequences that follow such behaviors determine if the behavior will be repeated (rat being studied in chamber and pegion-guided missile)

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Shaping

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Rewarding successive approximations of desired behavior (form responces through many multi-step training)

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Reinforcement

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Process by which a stumulus of event (reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again

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Positive reinforcement

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Presentation of stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior

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Netagive reinforcement

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Removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior

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Avoidance learning

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Special kind of response to negative reinforcement, organism's learning that can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response (bad graded students continues to study hard even when the bad grade is no longer present)

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Learning helplessness

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Organism's learning through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.

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Primary reinforcer

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Innately satisfying, does not take any learning on the organism's part to make pleasurable

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Secondary reinforcer

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Acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; it is learned or conditioned reinforcer (can be linked to primary reinforcers to classical conditioning)

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Generalization in operant conditioning

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Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situations (peagions pecking a disk of particular color tend to peck a disk with closes in color to the original)

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Norman Guttman and Harry Kalish Experiment

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Peagions reinfoced to peck a disk of particular color tended to pick those of similar color (wevaleangth) that were similar to original.

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Discrimination (operant conditioning)

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Responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced (student discount sign that enforces to present the ID or dog seeing Don't walk sign flashing stops)

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Extinction (operant conditioning)

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Decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced (Soda machine eating money enroces to quit inserting coins)

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Continued reinforcement

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Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs and organism learns rapidly.

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Partial reinforcement

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Reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of time (golfer doesn't win every tournament)

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Schedules of reinforcement

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Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.

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Schedules of partial reinforcement

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Fixed ratio, Variable ration, Fixed interval, Variable interval

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Ratio schedules

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Involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward

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Interval schedules

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Refer to the amount of the time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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Reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors (piece of candy for a child or an hour of video game play not every time but after five days of practicing)

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Viriable-ratio schedule

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A timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable bases; produce steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction (slot machine paying off at average of every 20 times, but gambler is unaware of it)

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Fixed-interval schedule

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Reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed, the rate of a behavior increases rapidly as the time approaches when behavior is likely will be reinforced (dog anticipating a dinner at 5 pm when he is usually fed)

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Variable-interval schedule

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Timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed (pop-quizzes, random drug testing), and the behavior is slow and consistent because its diffecult to predict the reward time.

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Punishment

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Consequences that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

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Positive punishment

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Presentation of stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. (spanking misbehaving child)

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Negative punishment

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Removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior (child is removed from toys, grounding from fun things in life)

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Immediate VS Delayed Reinforcement

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Humans respond to delayed reinformcements, while animals tend to respond to immediate reinforcement

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Immediate VS Delayed Punishment.

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Immediate punishment is more effective, but humans notice the delayed punishment that contribute to the negative outcome

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Applied behavior analysis or behavior modification

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Use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior (rewards and punishers that exist in a particular setting are carefully analyzed and manipulated to change behavors)

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Obervational learning (immitation of modeling)

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Attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement

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Attention

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Attend to what the model is saying or doing

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Retention

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Encode the information and keep it in the memory so that you can retrieve it

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Motor reproduction

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Proces of imitating the model's action

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Reinforcement (observational learning)

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Either repeating the behavior of the model or not

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Vicarious reinforcement

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Reward attained by the model increases chances that the observer will repeat the behavior

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Vicarious punishment

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Seeing model being punished makes the observer less likely to repeat the behavior

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Bandura's Model of Observational Learning

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Adult model demonstrates aggressive behavior with Bobo doll in experimental condition, later children watching the aggressive model were much more likely to engage in aggressive benavior with Bobo

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T. C. Tolman

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Emphasized the purposiveness of behavior - idea that much of behavior is goal-directed, entire behavioral sequencees need to be studied in order to understand why people engage in particular actions.

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Latent learniung (implicit learning)

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Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior (waling in new settings to get "the lay of the land", exploring the environment)

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Talent (Tolman & Honzik)

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Stored cognitively in memories but not yet expressed behaviorally (rats learing about the maze as they roamed around and explore)

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Insight learning (Kohler)

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Form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution, requires thinking "outside the box" setting aside previous expectations and assumptions.

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Kohler's insight learning

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Sultan, champs, solved the problem by stacking boxes to reach cluster of bananas overhead.

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Instictive drift

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Tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning.

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Preparedness (Garcia and Koeling)

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The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.

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Mindset

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Describes the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn.

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Carol Dweck

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Excercises in the growth-mindset group and emphasized that brain is like a muscle that can change and grow as it gets exercised and develops new connections (another: computer-based workshop to teach students that their intelligence can change)

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Fixed mindset

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belief that qualities are carved in stone and cannot change

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Growth mindset

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Belief that qualities can change and improve through effort.

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Stress responses

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Predictability, percieved control, perceptions on improvement, outlets for frustration.

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