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Unfulfilled needs --> Tension --> Driving force

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Needs fulfillment cycle:

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-Pay more attention to information -Think about more information -Make greater attempts to understand and comprehend information -Evaluate information more critically and remember for later use -Used with MODERATE INCONSISTENCY of information from what you originally believed about a product or idea

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High effort information processing/decision making:

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*Enduring* ongoing and long-term involvement; exhibited only for a few offerings *Situational* true in most cases; a kind of temporary involvement *Cognitive involvement* thinking about and processing of information related to one's goal, including learning about the offering *Affective* expensing emotional energy in or having heightened feelings about an activity or an offering

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Types of Involvement

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*Needs* and personal relevance *Goals*: the persistency and consistency of them Perceived *Risk* *Inconsistency*, when at a moderate level, with prior beliefs

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Things that affect motivation:

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-Caused by a different state between the ideal state and the actual state

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Needs

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1. *Maslow's Hierarchy* 2. *Social / nonsocial needs* (Social: keeping up with the jones' / "Because a friend said you'll love it" 3. *Functional* 4. *Hedonic/Symbolic* -Symbolic: how we perceive ourselves and others perceive us; motivates us for products that help in identifying such perceptions (to appear cool..."appear I have made it") -Hedonic: motives inherent desire for sensory pleasure

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Four types of needs:

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1. Needs are dynamic 2. We rank needs in our minds 3. Needs can be internally or externally aroused 4. Needs can have conflicts (approach-avoidance, approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance)

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Characteristics of needs:

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When you have a need that has two solutions, both which solve it and you can't decide between them

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Approach-Approach conflict

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Wanting to satisfy a need but it comes with a negative side effect Example: having a symbolic need for feeling cool, solving it by smoking, but wishing you could avoid the negative health effects associated with smoking OR, another example: wanting chocolate cake to solve the need of taste bud pleasure, but wishing to avoid the high calories and fat it would contain

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Approach-avoidance

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Choosing the lesser of the two evils in an option

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Avoidance-Avoidance

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-Are specified ways to solve needs Types: Concrete goals and abstract goals Promotion and prevention goals

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Goals

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A *specific* goal that allows for the *same interpretation* by *everyone* Example: "I want to end this course with an A"

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Concrete goals

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Goals that are more general, and may be interpreted different depending on the person Example: "I will be more honest now"

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Abstract goals

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A goal that fosters achieving a gain from something "I will study and do a lot of different things SO THAT I DO get an A"

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Promotion goals

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A type of goal that diminishes the likelihood of something occurring "I will run every day TO PREVENT gaining weight"

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Prevention goals

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explain the causes and reasonings of goals being met *Normative/Moral compatibility* *Certainty* *Agency*

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Types of appraisal theories:

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Finding out HOW CONSISTENT the goal ALIGNS with the individual creating it (Think "NORM") "Is this a normal goal that I should be able to achieve, given who I am?"

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Normative/Moral Compatibility (Appraisal theory with goals)

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Being CERTAIN; the GUARANTEE that a goal will be met or not (and then if it is, feeling twice the emotion)

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Certainty (Appraisal theory with goals)

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Finding out WHO/WHAT is the REASON for achieving a goal or not achieving it -Am I the reason this is being satisfied? (If so, I am very satisfied I made myself able to meet the goal)

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Agency (appraisal theory with goals)

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GOALS (Because they make a specific plan of action, which increases DRIVE)

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Motivation is driven by:

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-Motivation is likely to be higher when the goal is very important -It's more common when there is risk or uncertainty -It comes from a high price for mistakes -It also comes when there is not a lot of current information or knowledge beforehand

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High motivation components:

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Occurs when there is consistent information that is widely available, and low risk in making a mistake It also occurs as one gets closer to many goals, because he or she doesn't feel a need to work as hard as at the beginning (especially when striving to meet multiple goals)

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Low motivation

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Positioning goals with different audiences (such as Toyota selling Toyota and Lexus also, promoting them differently due to the different goals between the two markets)

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Marketing segmentation and goals:

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The extent to which one is uncertain about the consequences of making the choice Higher risk results in careful and attentive processing of information Occurs when there is: -Lack of information -High price -Technology complex offering -Substantial difference between brands -Inexperience or little confidence in one's own evaluation -Social visibility of the situation (being judged by others if making the wrong decision)

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Perceived risk

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*Performance or Functional Risk* looking at whether or not the product will perform as you expect (one could ask: risk on buying a used product versus a new one versus the cost) *Physical Risk* asking, is the product HARMFUL to you if one decision is made over the other? *Financial Risk*Will I lose money on this decision? *Psychological Risk* *Social Risk* What will this do to the way my friends perceive me?

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Types of risk:

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The *extent* to which consumers have the necessary resources to make an outcome happen

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Ability

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1. *Cognitive resources/style* (how much of an expert is the person? if moderate, he/she will seek the most amount of information; if an expert, very little extra info) 2. *Emotional resources* (the person's ability to feel/empathize with the issue at hand) 3. *Education and age* 4. *Money*

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Factors that affect abilities:

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Prior knowledge

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It's important to ensure that consumers in the target audience have ______________ in order to process marketing communications

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Monetary (Aid)

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To facilitate first time and repeat buying, marketers can provide _______ aid

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Time Distraction Complexity of information Amount of information Repetition of information Control of information

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Elements of opportunity:

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True This will make them easy to process

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True or false? Marketers should repeat marketing communications

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Time (pressured) In addition, marketers should reduce the amount of time needed to buy or make it easy to use a product

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Marketers should reduce ____ pressured decision-making

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Various sources

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Information should be made through:

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expose ourselves and attend to information relevant to our decision.

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Once we are motivated, have the ability, and the opportunity to process information, we __________________

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the process by which a consumer comes into PHYSICAL CONTACT with a stimulus -Exposure tends to be SELECTIVE -Marketing stimuli relates to information regarding OFFERINGS communicated by marketers or by noncommercial sources Exposure takes place at BUYING, USING, or DISPOSING stages; exposure out to be favorable

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Exposure

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*Ad placement* -Beginning or end of commercial breaks *Product distribution* and *shelf placement* -The greater the distribution, the greater the chance of exposure -Products at waste to eye level and at the end of the aisle get greatest exposure

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Factors affecting exposure:

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When consumers actively *seek* and sometimes actively *avoid* certain *stimuli* -*Zipping* (skipping/fast forwarding commercials, but not avoid them completely) (Selectively, I want to see some of the things; not completely avoiding the stimuli) -*Zapping* (COMPLETELY BLOCKING advertisements) *Native Advertising* incorporating advertising as "NEWS" (such as on the front page of a magazine, getting an article posted that's really just an advertisement, etc...) - this is a very effective way to BREAK through the CLUTTER

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Selective exposure

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The process of devoting mental activity to a stimulus Types of attention: *1. Selective*: consumers decide which items to focus on *2. Divided*: Consumers are capable of dividing attention span into units and allocating accordingly *3. Limited*: Attention to multiple things take place when it is automatic, well practice, and effortless

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Attention and Three Characteristics:

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All happens within a second: *1. Exposure* "I see this ad" *2. Attention* "I am going to read it and spend some mental activity to try and understand what it is" *3. Perception* "I believe this ad means this..."

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The Exposure process and three steps:

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When information is being processed from peripheral vision EVEN when we are NOT AWARE of DOING SO WHY STRESS ON PREATTENTIVE PROCESSING? -Preventive processing makes things *more familiar*, which *increases likelihood of purchasing* the item. -So, they'll likely pick the preemptively -processed brand over an unfamiliar one. MARKETING IMPLICATION: It's expected that marketing is not likely to captivate full attention,but the goal is to at least obtain pre-attentive processing.

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Preattentive Processing / Non-focal processing

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Ability to process preemptively depends on whether the stimulus is a picture or a word, and whether it is on the right to left of our focal item -*Right hemisphere*: processes music/spatial information -*Left hemisphere*: unfamiliar words, counts, forms sentences (Left = LOGIC) The right hemisphere processes stimulus left on the focal item, and the left hemisphere processes stimuli right of the focal item!

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Hemispheric Attention

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*1. Appeals to OUR needs, goals, values, beliefs* (appealing to goals/values of the consumer, then suddenly it becomes personally relevant as the person feels involved and connected to it) *2. REFERENCE GROUP*: Emerges from individuals perceived as familiar to one's self, therefore are more likely to be attended to *3. Contains DRAMATIC presentations*/strong narratives * *4. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS* as they captivate attention of the targeted consumer

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Ways to make information personally relevant (and then gain more attention / stay in the person's mind)

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*Visual attractive* (an attractive spokesperson) *Familiar, pleasant, or nostalgic* can all be used to attract attention *Humor* can also be used NOTE: This is specifically about that AD; not the product! (example: seeing an ad for a refreshing, ice cold coke is NOT pleasant when you're hot; it's ACTUALLY rather personally relevant!!!!!)

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Pleasant stimuli and attention:

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-*Novelty* (new/unique stimulus) -*Unexpectedness* (such as Sprint "Narwhals" commercial) (also, Mini Cooper's personal messages on billboards for drive by passengers that changes) -*Puzzles*/other exercises that ENGAGE the consumer and attract attention because they require resolution and CLOSURE from the consumer, also were NOT EXPECTED.

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Surprising stimuli and attention:

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1. Make it *personally relevant stimuli* (applying to our goals/values/needs/beliefs; relating to person's reference group; dramatic; rhetoric questions) 2. Make it *pleasant stimuli* (Attractiveness, nostalgic, humorous) 3. Make it *surprising stimuli* (novelty, unexpectedness, puzzles; example: sprint Narwhals) 4. Make it *easy to process stimuli*

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*4 Ways to captivate attention from consumers:*

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-Prominent stimuli (something you can't miss, such as a massive billboard) -Concrete stimuli (very VIVID, easily remembered) -When amount of competing info is less, messages are likely to get more information -Contrast

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Easy to process stimuli:

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-Familiarity leads to losing attention-getting ability (because we become used to the stimulus and no longer give it our attention amongst other stimuli) -Significant problem for marketers, which is why they alter stimulus while keeping the basic nmessage the same

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Habituation

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The process by which an individual understands the stimulus using one or more of the five senses -it's how we see the world around us Two key elements of perception: *WHEN?* and *HOW?*

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Perception

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*1. Absolute threshold* the LOWEST level at which an individual can experience a sensation (such as being able to read a font) -It's different between each person -Considered as the amount of difference between something and between nothing Example: the minimal distance to which you can actually read a billboard) *2. Differential threshold* (J.N.D. - Just Noticeable Difference) the point at which one can notice a change/difference in something -Applied in a consideration set (when you won't buy a certain product, it has crossed the differential threshold for choices. Versus, when items are both being considered, the differential threshold has not been crossed) (Such as slowly shrinking the size of Subway subs, then at a certain point, noticing it) *3. Subliminal threshold* when you can't physically see changes in stimuli, BUT they are strong enough for one or more receptors to perceive a difference still -Likely actually the power of suggestion -Good marketers will NOT use this -It's illegal -It DOES work, however.

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WHEN do we perceive stimuli?

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The* stronger* the *initial stimulus*, the *greater* the *additional intensity needed* for the second stimulus to be perceived to be *different* In other words, to continue attention, the next stimulus needs to be MORE DIFFERENT than the last one. Example: a new car model; are the features different enough to consider buying a newer model versus the previous year? (Besides price and mileage)

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Weber's Law states that:

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-Make sure any negative changes are NOT readily discernible to the public (so, don't let the difference be noticeable) -Ensure that product improvements, on the other hand, are very apparent to customers!

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What JND means to marketers:

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HOW we perceive a stimulus -A stimulus is nor perceived in isolation; it's organized in the context of OTHER THINGS -Stimuli are organized into a *unified whole* using perceptual organization to make ONE MEANING from something.

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Perceptual organization:

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1. Figure and Ground 2. Grouping 3. Closure

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Principles of perceptual organization:

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-People tend to organize perception into figure-and-ground relationships -The ground is usually hazy -Marketers design it so the FIGURE is noticed AMONGST the stimuli

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Figure and Ground (The first principle of perceptual organization)

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States that people group stimuli to form a unified impression or concept for easy processing It helps memory and recall Example: Easy Dinner advertisements feature busy adults who are able to calmly sit down to a delicious meal thanks to Easy Dinner" and making it a "quick and easy dinner solution that doesn't taste like it was made from the box." <-- this is grouping, because it associates the brand with busy, contemporary lifestyles and quality family time

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Grouping (The second principle of perceptual organization)

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People have a need for closure, and organize perceptions to form a *complete picture* They will often *fill in missing pieces* *Incomplete message* are *more remembered* than complete messages (because they had to do some work in order to create closure with the ad) Example: referring back to the puzzle advertisements

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Closure (The third principle of perceptual organization)

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1. Objective and subjective comprehension 2. Miscomprehension 3. The effect of MAO Motivation = desire Ability = Expertise/Knowledge Opportunity = Repetitive chances 4. The effect of culture

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Comprehension definition and its relation to consumer behavior Making sense of the message or stimulus is affected by......

question

The extent to which consumers *accurately understand* what is stated in a communication

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Objective Comprehension definition:

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Reflects the meanings consumers generate from a communication, whether or not these meanings were intended by the sender (Example: Fashion advertisement in India revealing female degrading Indian cultural values in her appearance, when people MISPERCEIVE that as an insult)

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Subjective Comprehension definition:

question

When consumers inaccurately receive the meaning contained in a message or product descriptions or usage directions.

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Miscomprehension

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Making sense of the message the message

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Comprehension definition:

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*Low-Context Cultures* separate a message from the context in which it appears *High-Context cultures* (ASIAN countries) interpret messages different based on the characteristics of the sender ("context clues") Language and visual information will definitely differ across cultures

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Low context vs high context cultures

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Anything toward which one has an attitude

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Attitude object

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*Affective component* (feelings) + *Cognitive component* (beliefs) form the overall attitude Which influence BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT (response tendencies)

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How attitudes affect behavior:

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*Favorability* the intensity of liking/disliking something *Accessibility* how easily evaluations come to mind *Confidence* how strongly we believe in our evaluations *Persistence* how long evaluations last *Resistance* how difficult or easy it is to change our evaluations

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Characteristics of Attitudes:

question

Mixed evaluations

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Ambivalence

question

-Though and emotion -Effort (high or low)

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Two dimensions of attitudes:

question

*Central Route Processing* = high effort *Peripheral Route Processing* = low effort

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Two types of processing efforts:

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Highly involved customers utilize this Product-related features and factual information Conscious thoughts about product attributes and use outcomes Persuasion generally alters product beliefs, which influence brand attitude, which influences purchase intentions

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The Central Route (involvement with forming/changing attitudes)

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Ideal for reaching low-involvement customers -Limited attention focused on peripheral, non product features and feelings -Low or non conscious information processing; few or no elaborative activities -Persuasion comes from *classical conditioning* ; affect change, attitude toward the ad, and non conscious belief changes lead to a behavior and attitude change

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The Peripheral Route (involvement with forming/changing attitudes)

question

1. Cognitive Response Model 2. Theory of Reasoned Action Model

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Two high-involvement information processing models that explain how consumers' thoughts relate to attitude

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-Cognitive responses are thoughts that *come to mind* *after* being *exposed* to a communication -These thoughts are *recognitions, evaluations, associations, images, or ideas* Cognitive responses are grouped into *3 categories:* -Counterarguments -Support arguments -Source derogations -Consumers exert enough to generate those three responses above IMPLICATIONS TO MARKETERS from the CR model: 1. Consumers do not blindly follow or accept suggestions made by marketers. 2. Consumers use their knowledge to effectively understand what is being said

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Cognitive Response Model

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1. Beliefs about the outcome of behavior + Evaluations of the outcome => ATTITUDE 2. Normative beliefs of the behavior + Motivations to comply => SUBJECTIVE NORMS 3. Attitude to the behavior + Subjective norms => BEHAVIORAL INTENTION 4. Behavioral intention => BEHAVIOR!

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Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) Model:

question

-It seems to predict the customer's *intention to behave* a certain way. (example: a customer's attitude toward pursuing exercising in his/her life) -ATTITUDE SPECIFICITY: To predict behavior more accurately, it is more important to determine the person's attitude toward a certain behavior rather than toward an object of behavior -Behavioral intention is also affected by the *opinion of others* about the behavior: *normative beliefs*

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About the theory of reasoned action (TORA) Model:

question

The TORA model focuses on attitude toward a BEHAVIOR of the subject, rather than the attitude toward a product like the CR model. (Example: attitude toward whether exercise is good in general = product (cognitive response), your attitude regarding YOU exercising = TORA) "I love this car..but I do NOT like the results of what happens from ME purchasing it" <-- attitudes are focused on behavior about the product by the person, not on the product itself! -Intention -Attitude specificity -Subjective norms You can love a product, but hate the behavior you would have to do if you acquired a product

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Three ways that the theory of reasoned action model is different from cognitive response:

question

*Changing beliefs* - proving a previous belief to be wrong "If you love eggs, you'll love this news; new studies shows that eggs are okay." *Changing evaluations* - changing a person's previous perception/assumption of an outcome, perhaps evaluating in a different way and valuing something else now. (repositioning the evaluations of Jaguars vs.BMW and saying royalty is more important than reliability) *Adding new beliefs* - teaching a customer something new about a product (Explaining how beneficial posture shoes are from Sketchers, when a person never thought about it before) *Targeting normative beliefs* - (Creating advertisements to relate to normative beliefs that already exist, such as value of recycling; assuming that the advertisement will spark more recycling)

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*****Marketing Implications for TORA:

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(Remember: three types of responses: source argument, rebuttal, or agreement) *Communication source* -Source credibility -Company reputation *Message: argument quality* -One-sided vs. two-sided messages -Comparative messages

answer

How cognitively based attitudes are influenced

question

SOURCE CREDIBILITY: -Trustworthiness, expertise, and status (ex: a researcher claiming evidence for something is reliable versus a celebrity endorsing a stupid product) -Credible sources influence consumer acceptance when prior attitudes are negative, when the message deviates from our prior beliefs, when the message is complex, when there is a good match with the product and the endorser -They have less impact when attitudes are confidently held, when consumers are more knowledgeable, and when the source endorses a large number of products COMPANY REPUTATION: -Companies with a reputation for quality products dealing fairly with consumers, and being trustworthy are more likely to believed.

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Communication source (for cognitively based attitude influence) SOURCE CREDIBILITY and COMPANY REPUTATION

question

*One-sided messages* effective when consumers are already loyal to a brand *Two-Sided messages* introduce both counter and support arguments, can be effective when consumers are initially opposed to strong competitive counter messages.

answer

Message; argument quality

question

-Show relative advantages over competition can be very useful -*Direct Comparative Advertising* EXPLICITLY NAMES a COMPETITOR and can be effective for low-share brands that are attempting to take shares away from high-share brands *Indirect comparative brands* are unnamed competitors (but hinted) and are applied with a MODERATE-SHARE brand comparing itself with OTHER MODERATE share brands

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Comparative messages:

question

-Consumers might also exert mental energy to process a message -*Emotional reactions* create attitudes that are *favorable, enduring, and resistant to change*

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Emotional foundations of attitude

question

-Messages are processed at a general level during emotional involvement -Affective responses happen, which build toward a *peak emotional experience* with highly intense, significant, and fulfilling experience Goals such as *hopes and aspirations* induce affective responses *Cultural differences* also influence effectiveness of emotional appeals

answer

Emotional foundations of attitude

question

The source (attractiveness involves match-up hypothesis) The messages (using emotion and fear appeal)

answer

How affectively based attitudes are influenced:

question

When MAO is high, attractive sources can evoke favorable attitudes IF they are appropriate for, or "match up with" the category Those who are physically appealing, similar to us, likable, or familiar, can influence attitudes.

answer

The Match-Up Hypothesis

question

Match-up hypothesis.

answer

When consumers' elaboration likelihood is high, attractive sources tend to evoke favorable attitudes if they appropriate for the offering category. This is the:

question

-More effective when the message shows how a given offering, action, or behavior has personally relevant consequences for the consumer -May limit the amount of product-related information consumers can process -Emotional appeals may be more effective when the arousal of emotion is related to the consumption or use if the product, as when hedonic or symbolic motivations are important

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Emotional appeals and the message:

question

-May be effective only under certain conditions -Are used when the appeal suggests an immediate action to reduce the fear -When the level of fear generated is MODERATE

answer

Fear appeals

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