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learning

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a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

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behaviorism

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an approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment and prior experience as determinants of behavior

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conditioning

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a basic kind of learning that involves associations among environmental stimuli and an organism's behavior

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Pavlov

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studied salivation in dogs as part of a research program on digestion

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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US, the classical-conditioning term for a stimulus that already elicits a certain response without additional learning; original salivary reflex

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unconditioned response (UR)

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UR, the classical conditioning term for a response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus, salivation

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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CS, the classical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus; food dish

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conditioned response (CR)

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CR, the classical conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus; dog response

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classical conditioning

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the process by which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already elicits a response and, in turn, acquires the capacity to elicit a similar or related response; PAVLOVIAN, or RESPONDENT conditioning

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extinction (classical)

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the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

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higher-order conditioning

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in classical condition, a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus- chain

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stimulus generalization

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SIMILAR STIMULI, SIMILAR REACTION; after conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning; it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS elicits the CR

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stimulus discrimination

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the tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR; different responses are made to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus, piano notes

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precede

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for classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should be ___ the unconditioned stimulus

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signal

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the conditioned stimulus becomes a ___ for the unconditioned stimulus

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predict

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to become a conditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus must signal, or ___, the unconditioned stimulus

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John B. Watson

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founded American behaviorism and enthusiastically promoted Pavlov's ideas.

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learning to like

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in classical conditioning terms, the things we enjoy are the unconditioned stimulus for the internal response of pleasure

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learning to fear

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humans are prepared to acquire some kinds of fear

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phobia

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when fear becomes irrational and interferes with normal activities

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Little Albert

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rat and hammer; boy was scared of loud hammer noises, but the rat comforted him

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counterconditioning

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in classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response; Peter liked cookies and milk, learned to like rabbits

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systematic desensitization

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a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli

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amygdala

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part of the brain that plays a central role in the conditioning of fear, in part because of a receptor for the neurotransmitter glutamate

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operant conditioning

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INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING, the process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences

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tantrum

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behavior becomes more or less likely depending on its consequences

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how operant conditioning works

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organism's response operates the environment, these effects influence whether the response will occur again

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central feature in operant conditioning

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is an association between a stimulus and a response

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classical vs. operant conditioning

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classical response- reflexive, automatic operant response- complex, not reflextive

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Edward Thorndike

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cat box

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B. F. Skinner

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argued that to understand behavior, we should focus on the external causes of an action and the action's consequences; to explain behavior, we should look outside the animal/person not inside

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consequences of behavior

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a response can be influenced by two types of consequences

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1. Reinforcement strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur

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reinforcers=rewards

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2. Punishment weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur

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punisher- aversive/unpleasant stimulus

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reinforcement

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the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows

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punishment

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the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows

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primary reinforcer

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a stimulus that is inherently reinforcing; typically satisfying a physiological need; an example is food

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primary punisher

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a stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock

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secondary reinforcer

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a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers; money

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secondary punisher

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a stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers; criticism

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positive reinforcement

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a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur; good grade after studying

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negative reinforcement

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a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur; studying to avoid nagging

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punishment decreases the likelihood of a response

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reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response

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Skinner box

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device that delivers a reinforcement, food, when an animal makes the appropriate response

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extinction (operant)

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the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer

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spontaneous recovery

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vending machine; alcoholic/drug abuse relapse

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stimulus generalization (operant)

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in operant conditioning, the tendency for a response that has been reinforced in the presence of one stimulus to occur in the presence of other similar stimulus

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stimulus discrimination (operant)

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in OC, the tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other similar stimuli that differ from it on some dimension

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discriminative stimulus

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a stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence

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continuous stimulus

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a reinforcement in which a particular response is always reinforced

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intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement

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a reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced

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shaping

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an operant-conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced; pigeons

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successive approximations

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in the operant-conditioning procedure of shaping, behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response

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instinctive drift

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during operant learning, the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior; Breland's and pig

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determinist view

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our actions are determined by our environments and our genetic heritage

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behavior modification

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the application of OC techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior; also called applied behavior analysis

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consistency

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what matters most to a punishment is not severity, but ___

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when punishment fails

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1. people often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly 2. the recipient of harsh/frequent punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage 3. the effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on the presence of the punishing person or circumstances 4. most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately 5. punishment conveys little information 6. an action intended to punish may instead by reinforcing because it brings attention

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when punishment must be applied

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1. should not involve physical abuse 2. be consistent 3. accompanied by info about the kind of behavior that is appropriate 4. be followed by reinforcement of desirable behavior

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rewards do not always work as expected

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high self-esteem doesn't improve academic performance

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extrinsic reinforcers

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reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced; outside source- money, praise

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intrinsic reinforcers

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reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced; enjoyment of task/satisfaction

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behavioral ABCs

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antecedents (events preceding behavior), behaviors, and consequences

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latent learning

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a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement; rat in maze with right/left cues

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social-cognitive theories

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theories that emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs

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observational learning

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a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another (a model) rather than through direct experience; sometimes called vicarious conditioning

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model

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another person behaving in certain ways and experiencing the consequences

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aggressive

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some people become more ___ after exposure to violent images in the media

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