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Learning

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the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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Avoidance learning

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a type of learning in which the subject acquires a response that enables it to avoid an unpleasant stimulus altogether

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Escape learning

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a type of learning in which the subject acquires a response that terminates some aversive stimulation

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Acquisition

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the process in classical conditioning in which the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned response, creating the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

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Extinction

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; suppresses conditioned response

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Spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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Generalization

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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Discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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Reconditioning

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reestablishing the link between an unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus becomes extinct; takes less time to pair the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus than the initial conditioning

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Classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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Neutral stimulus (NS)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response

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Unconditioned response (UCR/UR)

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in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

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Conditioned response (CR)

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in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

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Counterconditioning

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behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

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Systematic desensitization

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a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli; used to treat phobias

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Flooding

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a form of behavior therapy used to treat people with fears or phobias; the person with the fears is exposed to the thing that frightens them for a sustained period of time; the idea behind it is that, by exposing one to one's fear, one will eventually see it as less fear-producing

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Reflex

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a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

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Aversive conditioning

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a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

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Appetitive conditioning

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a type of classical conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus is a positive reinforcer that plays to the appetite

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Second/Higher-Order conditioning

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a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (and weaker) conditioned stimulus

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Learned taste aversion

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avoiding certain food after being sickened by it; taste and smell become a conditioned stimulus

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Operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer and diminished if followed by a punisher

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Law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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Skinner box

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aka operant chamber; in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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Reinforcement

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows; increases the frequency of the behavior

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Positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers; a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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Negative reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli; a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

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Punishment

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an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows; a punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of a proceeding behavior; powerfully restrain unwanted behavior

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Positive punishment

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administer an aversive stimulus; i.e. getting a traffic ticket for speeding

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Negative punishment

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withdraw a rewarding stimulus; i.e. taking away a teen's driving privilege

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Omission training

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the procedure of removing positive reinforcement upon the occurrence of unwanted behavior

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Shaping/Chaining

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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Primary reinforcer

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (unlearned); i.e. getting food when hungry

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Secondary/Conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; i.e. money

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Token economy

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an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

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Premack principle

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principle that explains that whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the activity that is not preferred

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Reinforcement schedule

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a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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Fixed-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; produces choppy stop-start pattern rather than a steady rate of response

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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Variable-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; produces slow, steady responding

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Variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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Continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; learning and extinction occur rapidly; best choice for mastering a behavior

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Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement; learning is slower; i.e. gambling/slot machines

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Respondent behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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Operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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Instinctive drift

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reverting back to biologically predisposed patterns

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Observational learning (Modeling)

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learning by observing others; the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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Mirror neurons

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frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

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Latent learning

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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Insight

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a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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Internal locus of control

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the perception that you control your own fate

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External locus of control

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the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

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Learned helplessness

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the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events; discovered by Seligman

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Cognitive map

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

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Intrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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Entrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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Coping

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alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

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Problem-focused coping

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attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we act with that stressor

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Emotion-focused coping

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attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

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Internal locus

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you control your own fate; optimists

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External locus

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chance and other outside forces control your fate; pessimists

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Self-control

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the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards; good adjustments and social success

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Biofeedback

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a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feedings back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

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Albert Bandura

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pioneering researcher of observational learning; Bobo doll experiment; discovered that we learn from people we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable

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B. F. Skinner

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modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure; his work elaborated on law of effect in operant conditioning; discovered behavior control

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Edward Thorndike

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discovered law of effect of which was elaborated on by Skinner in his contribution for operant conditioning

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Edward Tolman

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conducted studies in Skinner's youth providing evidence of cognitive processes from studying rats in mazes; contributed to the idea of a cognitive map

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Ivan Pavlov

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experimental psychologist whose famous experiments in the early twentieth century founded classical conditioning; believed basic laws of learning were similar to all animals; salivating dogs experiment; contributed to ideas of John B. Watson

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John Garcia

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worked with Koelling (1966) and challenged the prevailing idea that all associations can be learned equally well; violated that an US immediately follows a CS; contradicted that any perceivable stimulus could serve as a CS

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John Watson

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famous pioneer in the field of psychology that helped discover behaviorism; believed in consciousness and that the basic laws of learning are the same in all animals

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Robert Koelling

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worked with John Garcia and helped contribute to the discovery of biological and cognitive influences on learning

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Robert Rescorla

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1972; showed that an animal can learn predictability of an event; the more predictable the association, the stronger the CR

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Rosalie Raynor

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worked with Watson and showed how specific fears might be conditioned; Baby Albert experiment; discovered that psychologists can use behavioral techniques to treat emotional disorders and promote personal growth

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Wolfgang Kohler

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is well known for his studies on insight learning using chimpanzees; showed the power of insight learning by placing a banana above the reach of chimpanzees and watching how they attempted to reach the food

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