Ap Psychology: Memory & Intelligence – Flashcards
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Memory
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the power of retaining and recalling past experience
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Memory Encoding
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process of converting info into a form that can be stored mentally
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Memory Storage
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process of retaining info in memory
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Memory Retrieval
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process of accessing and bringing into consciousness info stored in memory
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Retrieval Cues
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stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory
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Encoding Specificity Principle
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belief that retrieval will be more successful when cues available during recall are similar to those present when the material was first committed to memory
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Context-Dependent Memory Effects
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The tendency for information to be better recalled in the same context in which it was originally learned
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State-Dependent Memory Effects
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The tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same psychological or physiological state as when the information was first encoded or learned
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Three-stage Model
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A model of memory that posits three distinct processes or subsystems of memory(sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory)
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Sensory Memory
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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
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Sensory Register
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A temporary storage buffer or holding device for storing sensory memories
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Short-term Memory
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The memory subsystem that allows for retention of newly acquired information for upwards of 30 seconds. Also called working memory
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Long Term memory
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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
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Iconic Memory
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The sensory store for holding a mental representaion of a visual image for a fraction of a second
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Eidetic Imagery
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A lingering mental representation of a visual image. Commonly called photographic memory
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Echoic Memory
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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
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Chunking
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A process of enhancing retention of larger amounts of information by breaking them down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks
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Maintenance Rehearsal
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A process for extending retention of information held in short-term memory by means of repetitive rehearsal of the information
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Phonological Loop
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In Baddeley and Hitch's three-component model, the speech-based part of working memory that allows for the verbal rehearsal of sounds or words
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Visuospatial Sketchpad
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In Baddeley and Hitch's three-component model, the storage buffer for visual-spatial material held in short-term memory.
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Central Executive
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In Baddeley and Hitch's three-component model, the component of working memory responsible for coordinating the other subsytems, processing stored information, and filtering out distracting thoughts
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Consolidation
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The process of converting short-term memories into long term-term memories
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Elaborative Rehearsal
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A process of transfering information from short-term to long-term memory by means of conscious elaboration of the meaning of the information
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Levels-of-processing Theory
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The belief that differences between short-term and long-term memory reflect different levels of processing rather than distinct stages of memory.
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Semantic Network Model
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A representation of the organizational structure of long-term memory in terms of a network of associated concepts
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Spreading Activation
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a principle that explains how information is retrieved in semantic network theories of memory
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Declarative Memory
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Memory of facts, figures, and personal information that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind, the type of memory involved in knowing "what" and "that".
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Semantic Memory
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Memory of general facts and information
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Episodic Memory
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Memory of personal experiences for the stories of our lives
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Retrospective Memory
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Memory of past events or previously acquired information
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Prospective Memory
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Memory of things that one plans to do at particular time in the future
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Procedural Memory
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memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks
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Implicit Memory
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the unintentional influence of prior experiences
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Explicit Memory
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the process in which people intentionally try to remember something
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Priming Tasks
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an experimental task in which subjects are present with a stimulus that primes them to repsond in a certain way to subsequent stimuli
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Constructionist Theory
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The theory that holds that memory involves a process of representing or reconstructing past events and experiences
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Memory Schemas
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An organized knowledge structure, such as a set of belifs, that reflect one's past experiences, expectancies, and knowledge about the world.
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Flashbulb Memories
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Enduring memories of emotionally charged events that seem seare into memory
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Decay Theory
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Theory that each item in memory decays spontaneously as time passes.
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Savings Theory
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A methos of testing memory retention by means of comparing the numbers of trials needed to learn material with the number of trials needed to relearn the material at a later time.
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Massed vs. spaced practice theory
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The tendency for retention of learned material to be greater following spaced practice rather than massed practice
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Interference Theory
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Belief that forgetting occurs because other items get in the way of the information a person wants to remember.
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Retroactive Interference
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A form of interference in which newly acquired information interferes with retention of earlier learned material
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Proactive Interference
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A form of interference in which newly acquired information interferes with retention of earlier learned material
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Serial Position Effect
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The tendency to recall material placed at the start or end of a list better than material placed in the middle of the list
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Primary Effect
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Tendency to recall items better when they are learned first
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Recency Effect
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With respect to memory, the tendency to recall items better when they are learned last
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Retrieval Theory
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The process of recalling information stored in memory
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Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
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An experience in which people sense that they know something but can't seem to bring it to mind.
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Repression
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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
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Recall Tasks
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memory task in which one must retrieve information from long-term memory with only minimal retrieval cues
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Recognition Tasks
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A method of measuring memory retention, such as multiple choice tests, which assess the ability to recognize the correct answer among a range of alternatives
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Free Recall
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A type of recall task in which individuals are asked to reproduce as many stored items as possibe in any order
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Serial Recall
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A type of recall task inwhich individuals are asked to recite a list of items or number in a particular order
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Paired Associates Recall
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A type of recall task in which individuals first learn a list of paired words or items and then are asked to reproduce the correct pair member when given the other item in the pair
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Amnesia
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Loss of Memory
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Anterograde Amnesia
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a loss of memory for any event that occurs after a brain injury
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Retrograde Amnesia
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a loss of memory for events prior to a brain injury
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Childhood Amnesia
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normal occurrence of amnesia for events occurring during infancy and early childhood
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Dissociative Amnesia
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sudden loss of memory usually following a particularly stressful or traumatic event
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Neural Networks
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Memory circuits in the brain that consist of complicated networks of nerve cells
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Engram
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Lashley's term for physical trace or etching of memory in the brain
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Hippocampus
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a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
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Long Term Potentiation
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The long-term strengthening of neural connections by means of repeated stimulation
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Cell Assemblies
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Hebb's Concept of a grouping of cells in the brain that reverberate electrically together in the process of forming new memories
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Mnemonics
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Strategies for placing information in an organized context in order to remember it
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Acronyms
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words that are made up of the first letters of other words
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Acrostics
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A verse or saying in which the first or last letter of each word stands for something else
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Method of Loci
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A mnemonic based on linking items to be remembered with objects in familiar locations. Also called the method of places
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Cognitive Psychology
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branch of psychology that focuses on such mental processes as thinking, problem solving, decision making, and use of language
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Thinking
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process of mentally representing and manipulating information
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Mental Image
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mental picture of representation of object or event
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Concepts
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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
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Logical Concepts
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concepts with clearly defined rules for membership
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Natural Concepts
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concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership
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Superordinate Concepts
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the broadest concepts in a three-level hierarchy of concepts
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Basic Level Concepts
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mid level of concepts in a 3 level heirarchy of concepts, corresponding to the categories we most often use in grouping objects and events
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Specific Concepts
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The narrowest or most specific level of concepts in a three-level hierarchical ordering of concepts
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Positive Instances
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an object that fits a particular concepts
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Negative Instances
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object that doesn't fit a particular concept
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Problem Solving
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the thought processes involved in solving a problem
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Algorithms
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very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
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Heuristics
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Time-saving mental shortcuts used in reasoning
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Analogies
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In problem solving, the attempt to apply knowledge gained from solving similar problems to the problem at hand
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Mental Set
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A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
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Functional Fixedness
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A tendency to perceive the uses of objects as limited to the customary finctions they serve
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Decision Making
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the cognitive process of reaching a decision or determining a course of action
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Confirmation Bias
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The tendency to maintain allegiance to an original hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary
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Representativeness Heuristic
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judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information.
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Availability heuristic
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The tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when they are more readily called to mind
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Creativity
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Originality of thought associated with the development of new workable products or solutions to problems
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Divergent Thinking
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Ability to conceive of novel ways of viewing situations and of alternate uses for familiar objects
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Convergant Thinking
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Ability to bring together different sources of information to find the one correct answer to a problem
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Language
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a systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols
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Grammar
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The set of rules that govern how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expresions
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Phonemes
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The basic unit of sounds in a language
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Morphemes
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The smallest units in a language that convey meaning
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Syntax
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the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
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Semantics
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The meanings of words or other symbolic expressions in a language
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Language Acquisation Device
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According to Chomsky, the hypothetical prewired innate mechanism in the brain that allows children to naturally acquire language
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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
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The proposition that the particular language we use determines how we think and percieve the world.
