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Forest

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any ecosystem with a high density of trees; Stabilize soil and prevent erosion, slow runoff, prevent flooding, purify water, store carbon, release oxygen, influence weather patterns, and moderate climate. Provide: medicines, food, fuel, shelter, ships, paper.

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Boreal Forest

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in Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia

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Tropical rainforest

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South and Central America, Africa, Indonesia, and southeast Asia

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Temperate rainforests

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(Great Smokey Mountain National Park; scattered along Appalachian mountains from N.GA to New England)

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Woodlands

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ecosystems with lower density of trees

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Forest types

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are defined by predominant tree species; the eastern U.S. has 10; The Western U.S. holds 13 different types

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Temperate rainforests

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Coniferous trees grow very tall; it is shaded and damp.

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Allspice

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a carminative that aids in expelling gas to relieve colic

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Areca

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a palm tree; produces an alkaloid areocoline, from seed extract, has the ability to destroy and repel worms in animals

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Balsam poplar

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has buds coated with gooey, fragrant substance called \"balm-of-Gilead,\" an expectorant and a constituent of cold medicine. Also keeps ointment from going rancid. Helps heal wounds.

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Benjamin

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grayish, fluffy bark. When wounded, it exudes a white, aromatic gum known as gum benzoin. A productive expectorant when used in medicine. As the compound called, tincture of benzoin, it relieves bronchitis when employed in a steam inhaler.

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Birch

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possesses concentrations of salicylic acid, the predecessor of aspirin (Willows possess this acid as well)

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Deforestation

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the clearing and loss of forests; changes landscapes and ecosystems, reduces biodiversity, worsens climate change, disrupts ecosystem services, ruins civilizations.

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Primary forest

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natural forest uncut by people

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Second-growth trees

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grown to partial maturity after old-growth timber has been cut

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Secondary forest

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contains second-growth trees; smaller trees, very different species and structure

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Concession

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corporations pay the government for the right to extract resources; temporary jobs are soon lost, along with resources

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Palm oil plantations

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palm oil is used in snack foods, soaps, cosmetics, biofuel; Borneo has lost most of its forest cover; clearing encourages further development and illegal logging.

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Conservation concessions

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organizations team up to reduce deforestation and illegal logging

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Carbon offsets

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curb deforestation and climate change; forest loss causes greenhouse gas emissions; the Kyoto Protocol doesn't address this.

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REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation)

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From the 2009 Copenhagen climate conference; wealthy nations would pay poor nations to conserve forests; poor nations would gain income, while rich nations would receive carbon credits to offset their emissions.

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Forestry (silviculutre)

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forest management; sustainable forest management is spreading

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Foresters

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Professional managers who must balance demand for forest products (short-term benefits) vs. the importance of forests as ecosystems (long term).

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Resource management

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strategies to manage and regulate potentially renewable resources; sustainable management doesn't deplete resources; managers are influenced by social, political, and economic factors.

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Forest management

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three strategies that resources managers use to avoid deleterious effects on the forest system while sustaining the resource long-term: 1. Maximum sustainable yield. 2. Ecosystem-based management. 3. Adaptive management

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Maximum sustainable yield

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aims to achieve the maximum amount of resource extraction without depleting the resource from one harvest to the next. PROBLEMS: Managed populations are smaller than they would naturally be; reducing populations so drastically affects other species and it changes the entire ecosystem; trees are cut long before they grow to maximum size, changing forest ecology, and eliminating habitats.

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Carrying Capacity

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the maximum population size of a species that a given environment can sustain; harvesting trees shortly after reaching their intermediate age (most rapid growth phase) to maximize timber production over time; this practice helps to sustain the population over time.

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Ecosystem-based management

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managing resource harvesting to minimize impacts on ecosystems and ecological processes; sustainably certified forestry plans protect areas; its challenging to implement this type of management because ecosystems are complex and our understanding of how they operate is limited.

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Adaptive management

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testing different approaches and aiming to improve methods through time; monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed; time-consuming and complicated, but effective.

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1994 Northwest Forest Plan

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resolved disputes between loggers and preservationists over the last U.S. old-growth temperate rainforests; allowed limited logging while protecting species and ecosystems (ex. Northern spotted owl).

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National forest system

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public lands set aside to grow trees, produce timber, protect watersheds, and ensure future timber supplies

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U.S. Forest Service

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manages forests for \"the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run\"; Gifford Pinchot believed conservation included, planting trees as well as harvesting trees. Also plans and manages timber sales and builds roads

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Even-aged stands

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all trees are the same age

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Rotation time

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trees are cut after a certain time; the land is replanted

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Uneven-aged stands

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mixed ages of trees and species

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Clear cutting

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all trees in the area are cut. Most cost-efficient; greatest ecological impact; may mimic some natural disturbance (ex. Storms); leads to soil erosion.

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Seed-Tree approach

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a few seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the logged area

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Shelterwood approach

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some trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings as they grow

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Selection systems

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only select trees are cut

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Single tree selection

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widely spaced trees are cut

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Group tree selection

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small patches of trees are cut

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Multiple use policy

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national forests are to be managed for recreation, habitat, minerals, and other uses. In reality timber production is the primary use.

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National Forest Management Act (1976 )

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mandated that every national forest draft plans for renewable resource management. This incorporated the concept of 'multiple use and sustainable yield.'

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Every national forest must formulate plans for renewable resource management that

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Consider both economic and environmental factors; Provide for and protect regional diversity; Ensure research ad monitoring of management; Permit only sustainable harvest levels; Ensure that profit alone doesn't guide harvest method; Protect soils and wetlands; Assess all impacts before logging to protect resources

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New forestry

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came from National Forest Management Act; timber cuts that mimic natural events; sloppy clear cuts mimic windstorms

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Roadless rule

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The Bush administration repealed this (it was Clinton's); protected 31% of national forests from logging. This was later reinstated in 2009.

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Wildland-urban interface

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housing developments that are near forests are vulnerable to forest fires.

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Prescribed (controlled) burns

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burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions; clear away fuel loads, nourish soil with ash, encourage growth of new vegetation; are time-intensive; are impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference.

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Healthy forests restoration act (2003)

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promotes removal of small trees, underbrush, and dead trees; passed in response to forest fires.

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Salvage logging

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removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance. This seems logical but is really destructive; snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting and roosting cavities for countless animals/insects; removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage; impedes forest regeneration and promotes future fires.

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Sustainable forest certification

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products produced sustainable can be certified by organizations; the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) has the strictest standards.

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National Parks

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public lands protected from resource extraction and development. (Yellowstone National Park)

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Antiquities Act

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lets the president declare public lands as national monuments which may later become national parks

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National Park Service (NPS)

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created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments (parks are \"the best idea we ever had\")

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National Wildlife Refuges

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Begun in 1903 by Roosevelt

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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)

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administers wildlife refuges, serving as havens; but allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, and education; managed for waterfowl and non-game species; restores marshes and grasslands.

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Wilderness areas

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are off limits to development; for hiking, nature study, etc...must have minimal impact.

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The wise-use movement

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individuals and industries opposed to environmental protection and want: to protect private property, oppose gov regulation; federal lands transferred to state or private hands; motorized recreation on public lands; farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral, and fossil fuel industries

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Land trusts

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local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it (the nature conservancy: the world's largest land trust)

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Paper parks

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areas protected on paper but not in reality

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Biosphere reserves

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land with exceptional biodiversity; couple preservation with sustainable development; benefit local people

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UNESCO

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the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; designate the biosphere reserve zones.

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Core area

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biodiversity preservation

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Buffer Zone

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local activities and limited development such as research, education and tourism

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Transitional area

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sustainable agriculture, human settlements, and other land uses

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Transboundary parks

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protected land overlapping national borders (100 nations, 10% of protected landdddd)

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Peace parks

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transboundary parks that ease tensions by acting as buffers between quarreling nations; costa rica and panama

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Edge effects

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conditions along a fragment's edge are different than conditions in the interior; interior bird species cant reproduce when forced near the edge of a fragment; parasites and predators attack nests

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Island biogeography theory

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explains how species come to be distributed among oceanic islands; also applies to \"habitat islands\"- patches of one habitat within \"seas\" of others; the number of island species results from a balance between species added (immigration) versus lost (extirpation).

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Area effect

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larger islands have more species than small; they have more habitats, environments, and variety

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Distance effect

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the farther an island is form the continent, the fewer species find and colonize it. (larger islands have higher immigration rates and lower extinction rates)

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Species-area curves

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the number off species on an island doubles as size increases tenfold

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SLOSS dilemma

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which is better to protect species: a single large or several small reserves? Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects

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Corridors

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protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of habitat; animals get more habitat; enables gene flow between populations

Environmental Science Ch. 12

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